■'■■.^>w^ 


WORKS   OF   PROF.  F.  W.  WOLL. 


A  Handbook    for    Farmers    and    Dairymen.     Sixth 

Edition.     New  York,  1914.     xv+490  pp.     $1.50. 

Grotenfelt's  Modern  Dairy  Practice.  American  Edi- 
tion by  F.  W.  Woll.  Third  Edition,  Revised.  New  York, 
1910.     286  pp.     $2.00. 

A  Book  on  Silage.  Second  Edition.  Chicago,  III.,  1900. 
234  pp.      (Out  of  print.) 

Decker's  Cheese  Making,  Domestic  and  Foreign.  Fifth 
Rev^ised  Edition,  by  F.  W.  Woll.  Madison,  Wis.,  1913. 
211  pp.     .?i.75. 


Jointly  with  Prof.  E.  H.  Farrington. 

Testing  Milk  and  Its  Products.    Twenty-second  Edition. 
Madison,  Wis.,  191^.     297  pp.     $1.25. 


A 
HANDBOOK 


FOR 


FARMERS  AND  DAIRYMEN 


BY 

F.    W.    WOLL, 

Professor  of  Animal  Nutrition.  University  of  California 

WITH   THE    ASSISTANCE    OF 

WELL-KNOWN    SPECIALISTS 


Wi\t\^  ^illustrations 


SIXTH     EDITION,     REVISED 
TOTA".,   erX  THOUSAND     .  , . 


NEW   YORK 
JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS,   Inc. 
London:  CHAPJMAX   &  HALL,  Limited 
1914 


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Copyright,  1897,  1900,  1907.  1908,  1914 

BY 

F.  W.  WOLL 


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(y^, 


THE  SCIENTIFIC   PRESS 

ROBERT   DRUMMOND   AND    COMPANY 
BROOKLYN,    N.   Y. 


PREFACE  TO    SIXTH  EDITION. 


The   present   edition   of   the   Handbook   has   been   carafully 

revised,  with  a  view  to  including  therein  only  the  latest  and  best 

information  on  agricultural  topics  of  importance  to  American 

farmers  and  dairymen.     A  number  of  new  subjects  have  been 

added,  and  tables  and  articles  have  been  brought  up  to  date 

where  better  data  were  available.     It  is  hoped  that  the  changes 

and  additions  made  will  further  increase  the  usefulness  of  this 

little  volume  to  American  farmers  and  students  of  agriculture. 

F.   W.   WOLL. 
Juue,  1914. 


PREFACE   TO  FIRST    EDITION. 


The  effort  of  the  author  has  been  to  make  this  small  volume 
a  compendium  of  useful  information  on  farm  and  dairy  topics. 
Brief  discussions  on  subjects  of  importance  and  interest  to 
farmers  and  dairymen  have  been  introduced,  and  useful  facts, 
tables,  formulas,  receipts,  agricultural  statistics,  etc.,  are  given 
to  such  an  extent  as  the  plan  of  the  work  permitted.  Valuable 
data  scattered  throughout  our  agricultural  literature,  in  the 
publications  of  our  experiment  stations  and  the  scientific  divi- 
sions of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  as  well 
as  in  other  public  documents,  and  in  farm  papers  and  standard 

ill 


IV  PREFACE, 

works,  have  been  gathered  in  this  Handbook  and  arranged 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  them  easily  accessible  and  con- 
venient for  reference  purposes. 

The  present  volume  is  founded  on  the  Dairy  and  Agricul- 
tural Calendars  previously  published  by  the  author.  Much 
new  material,  both  original  and  compiled,  has,  however,  been 
included,  and  special  articles,  tables,  statistics,  etc.,  have  been 
verified  and  brought  up  to  date,  making  the  book,  as  it  is  hoped, 
of  considerable  value,  and  securing  for  it  as  favorable  a  reception 
as  was  accorded  its  predecessors. 

The  author  takes  this  opportunity  of  thanking  the  follow- 
ing specialists  who  have  so  materially  increased  the  useful- 
ness of  the  book  by  comprehensive,  concise  contributions  on 
subjects  in  their  particular  lines  of  study:  Professors  W.  H. 
Caldwell,  J.  A.  Craig,  John  W.  Decker,  L.  H.  Dewey,  F.  H. 
Farrington,  B.  E.  Fernow,  E.  S.  Goflf,  A.  W.  Richter,  H.  L. 
Russell,  Thos.  Shaw,  Wm.  P.  Wheeler;  and  Messrs.  John 
Boyd,  W.  G.  Clark,  M.D.C.,  N.  S.  Fish,  J.  D.  Frederiksen, 
H.  B.  Curler,  S.  Hoxie,  J.  Noer,  M.D.,  J.  H.  Pickrell,  H.  B. 
Richards,  L.  P.  Sisson,  J.  McLain  Smith,  and  C.  M.  Winslow. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


PART   I.     AGRICULTURE. 

I.     FEEDING   STUFFS. 

PAGB 

Composition  of  Feeding  Stufifs i 

Table  Showing  Average  Composition  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs.  .  3 

Ready  Reference  Table  of  Composition  of  Feeds 6 

Classification  of  Cattle  Foods 11 

Classification  of  Concentrates  According  to  Protein  Content 11 

Feeding  Standards  for  Farm  Animals 12 

Rations  for  Dairy  Cows I4«i6 

Calculation  of  Components  of  Feed  Rations 14 

Average  Weights  of  Concentrated  Feeding  Stuffs 18 

Food  Requirements  of  Farm  Animals 18 

Comparative  Value  of  Cattle  Foods lO 

Calculated  Value  of  Fniits  Compared  with  Hay,  Grains,  etc ig 

Amounts  of  Different  Feeds  Required  to  Equal  One  Feed  Unit.  .  .  .  19a 
Pounds  of   Dry  Matter,  Digestible   Matter,  and  Digestible  Protein 

to  be  Furnished  in  Rations  for  Dairy  Cows 19ft 

Prices  of  Cereals  per  Bushel  and  per  Ton 20 

Valuation  of  Feeding  Stuffs 20 

11.     FARM   ANIMALS. 

Characteristics  of  Breeds  of  Live  Stock.     By  the  Late  Prof,  John 

A.  Craig,  of  Iowa  Agricultural  College 21 

Market  Classes  of  Farm  Animals ag 

Table  for  Estimating  Live  Weight  of  Cattle 35 

Determination  of  the  Age  of  Farm  Animals  by  Their  Teeth 36 

Body  Temperature  of  Farm  Animals 38 

Duration  and  Frequency  of  Heat  in  Farm  Animals 38 

Period  of  Incubation  of  Poultry ...  38 

Gestation  Calendar 3g 

Feeding  and  General  Care  of  Poultry.     Prof.  Wm.  P.Wheeler,  of 

N.   Y.   (Geneva)   Experiment   Station 41 

Loss  in  Weight  of  Eggs  During  Incubation 46 

Standard  Weights  of  Poultry ^y 

Synopsis  of  Breeds  of  Poultry ^g 

Heredity.     Prof.  Thos.  Shaw,  late  of  Minnesota  Experiment  Sta- 
tion   ^g 

V 


VI  TABLE   OF    CONTENTS. 

III.     VETERINARY   SCIENCE. 

PAGB 

Common  Diseases  of  Farm  Animals.     W.  G.  Clark,  M.D.C.,  Mari- 
nette, Wis 53 

Veterinary  Remedies  and  Doses.     W.  G.  Clark,  M.D.C.,  Marinette, 

Wis 63 

Suppression  of  Hog  Cholera  and  Swine  Plague 67 

Directions   for  making  Tuberculin   Tests 69 

List  of  Disinfectants 7° 

Rules  for  the  Disinfection  of  Stables 71 

Regulations  for  the  Government  of  Dairies  and  Dairy  Farms  in  the 

District  of  Columbia 71 

IV.     FIELD   CROPS. 

Quantity  of  Seed  Required  to  the  Acre 74 

Seed  Mixtures  for  Hay  and  Permanent  Pastures 75 

Important  Data  as  to  Field  Crops 77 

The  Weight  and  Average  Composition  of  Ordinary  Crops,  in  Pounds 

per  Acre 80 

Soiling  Crops  Adapted  to  Northern  New  England  States 81 

Time  of  Planting  and  Feeding  Soiling  Crops 82 

Replacing  Winter-killed  Clover 82 

Crops  for  Partial  Soiling  for  Illinois 82 

Succession  of  Soiling  Crops  for  Dairy  Cows 84 

Capacity  of  Cylindrical  Silos 85 

Relation  of  Horizontal  Feeding  Area  and  Number  of  Cows  Kept 

for  Silos  24  and  30  Feet  Deep 85 

Relation  between  Size  of  Silos  and  Number  of  Cows  They  Will  Keep  86 

Number  of  Plants  or  Hills  for  an  Acre  of  Ground 86,  87 

Yield  of  a  Good  Crop  of  Farm  Products  per  Acre 87 

V.     HORTICULTURE. 

Gardener's  Planting  Tables 88 

Distances  Apart  for  Fruit-trees,  Time  Required  to  Bear  Fruit,  and 

Longevity 9° 

Time  of  Germination  of  Vegetable  Seeds  and  Maturity  Table 90 

Average  Yields  per  Acre  of  Various  Crops 91 

A  Combined  Fruit  and  Vegetable  Garden 92 

A  Vegetable  Forcing  Calendar 93 

Seasons  of   Varieties  of   Apples  in   Various   Storages 94 

Packages   Used   in   Shipping   Fruit 94 

Relation  of  Specific  Gravity,  Dry  Matter,  and  Starch  Content  cf 

Potatoes •  ••  •  95 

Specific  Gravity,  Sugar  Content,  and  Boiling-point  of  Maple  Sirup.  96 

Weight  of  Sugar  Obtained  from  100  lbs.  of  Maple  Sirup 97 

Sorghum  Sirup  Obtained  from  Juice  of  Different  Densities 97 

Temperatures  to  which  Perishable  Goods  may  be  Subjected  With- 
out Injury 98 

Temperatures  Injurious  to  Plants 99 

Best  Temperatures  for  Preserving  Horticultural  Products,  ,,,,...  100 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  Vll 


PAGE 

The  Preservation  of  Soft  Fruits  for  Exhibition  Purposes loo 

The  Standards  of  the  Baltimore  Canned  Goods  Exchange 102 

Packages  Used  in  Shipping  Fruit 103 

VI.     SEEDS. 

Seed-testing  for  the  Farmer,  by  the  late  Gilbert  H.  Hicks,  of  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture 104 

Standards  of  Purity  of  Seeds 106 

Table  of  Germination  Standards 109 

Number,  Weight,  Cost  of  Grass  Seeds,  and  Amount  to  Sow  per 

Acre 109 

Notes  on  the  Adaptability  and  Uses  of  Grasses  and  Clovers 11 1 

Vitality  of  Seeds  if  Properly  Kept 113 

Seedsmen's  Customary  Weights  per  Bushel  of  Seeds 114 

Weight  and  Size  of  Garden  Seeds 115 

Average  Time  Required  for  Garden  Seeds  to  Germinate 115 

Yield  of  Seeds  from  an  Acre 115 

VII.     WEEDS. 

Table  of  Noxious  Weeds.      L.  H.  Dewey,  Assistant  Botanist  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture 116 

VIII.     ENEMIES  OF  FARM    CROPS. 

Treatments  for  Injurious  Insects  and  Fungous  Diseases  of  Plants, 

by  the  late  Prof.  E.  S.  Goff,  of  V/isconsin  Experiment  Station..  .  i2r 

Spraying  Calendar 123 

A  Cheap  Orchard-spraying  Outfit 126 

Prevention  of  Oat -smut 127 

The  Formaldehyd  Treatment  for  the  Prevention  of  the  Smuts  of 

Cereal  Grains  and  of  Potato  Scab i  2q 

Fighting  the  Chinch-bug  by  Means  of  Kerosene  Emulsion 130 

IX.     FORESTRY. 

Forestry  for  Farmers.     Dr.   B.   E.   Femow,  late   Director  N.   Y. 

State  College  of  Forestry 131 

Number  of  Trees  on  an  Acre 135 

Fuel  Value  and  Specific  Gravity  of  Some  of  the  More  Important 

Woods  of  the  United  States 136 

Distance  Table  for  Tree-planting 138 

States  and  Territories  Observing  Arbor  Day,  with  Dates 139 

Forest-fire  Laws  in  the  United  States 140 

X.     MANURES   AND   FERTILIZERS. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers 14^ 

Approximate  Losses  of  Fertilizing  Materials  in  Different  Systems 

of  Farming 1^5 

Average  Chemica   Composition  of  American  Soils 146 

Manuria,  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs j^y 

Fertilizing  Constituent    of  Feeding  Stuffs  and  Farm  Products.  ...  .  148 


Vlll  TABLE    OF    CONTEKTS. 


PAGE 

Amount  of  Soil  Ingredients  Withdrawn  by  Various  Crops 150 

Amount    of    Fertilizing   Materials   Contained   in     Different    Crops 

Grown  on  One  Acre 151 

Farmyard   Manure    Required   to   Replace   Ingredients  Abstracted 

from  the  Sr)il  by  an  Acre  of  Different  Crops 152 

Amount  and  Quality  of  Manure  Produced  by  Sto'.x 152 

Composition,  Amount,  and  Value  of  Manure  Produced  by  Differ- 
ent Kinds  of  Farm  Animals 153 

Quantities  of  Nitrogen  and  Ash  Constituents  Voided  by  Animals.  .  153 

Percentage  Composition  of  Commercial  Fertilizing  Materials 154 

Exhaustion  of  Fertilizers 156 

Equivalent    Quantities   of    Fertilizing   Materials 157 

Proportion  of  Plant   Food  Recommended  for   Crops is8 

Valuation  of  Manures  and  Fertilizers 158 

Trade   Values   of    Fertilizing    Ingredients   in    Raw    Materials   and 

Chemicals,  1 908 159 

Conversion  Table  for  Calculating  Fertilizing  Ingredients 160 

Prices  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  on  the  Ammoniate  Basis 160 

XI.     AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING. 

Drainage:   Reasons  for  Tile-draining  Land 161 

Number  of  Rods  and  of  Tiles  per  Acre,  with  Drains  at  Various 

Distances  Apart 162 

Size  of  Tiles  Required  for  Draining  under  Average  Conditions.  .  162 

Table  of  Size  of  Tile  Pipe  of  Main  Drain 163 

Rule  for  Obtaining  Size  of  Main  Pipes 163 

Number  of  Acres  which  a  Tile  of  a  Given  Diameter  and  Per  Cent 

Grade  will  Drain  when  Used  as  an  Outlet 164 

Number  of  Acres  Drained   by  Tiles  Removing  i  in.   Depth  of 

Water  in  Twenty-four  Hours 165 

Number  of  Acres  Drained  by  Open  Ditches. 166 

Advice  to  Land  Owners  About  to  Construct  Drains 168 

Points  to  Note  in  Planning  a  Drainage  System 169 

Sizes    of    Drain-pipe    Required    for   Culverts    in    Proportion    to 

Capacity  and  Fall 169 

Areas  from  which  i  in.  of  Water  will  be  Removed  in  Twenty-four 
Hours    by    Outlet    Tile    Drains    of    Different    Diameters    and 

Lengths  with  Different  Grades 170 

Rise  of  the  Slipe  for  100  Feet 171 

Quantity  of  Earth  Removed  per  Rod  of  Drains  of  Various  Dimen- 
sions   171 

Limit  of  Size  of  Tile  to  Grade  and  Length 172 

Rainfall.  , 172 

Windmills:    Table  Showing  the  Force  and  Velocity  of  Wind 173 

Number  of  Square   Feet  and  Acres   Irrigated  by  Windmills  of 

Different  Sizes.     173 

Table  Showing  Capacity  of  Windmills .'....  174 

Table  Showing  Economy  of  Windmills 175 

Nonninal    Horse-power    Required    for    the    Discharge    of    Given 

Quantities  of  Water  with  Lifts  of  10  and  20  Ft 176 


TABi^E   OF   CO^N^TEKTS.  IX 


PAGB 

Irrigation:    Definition  of  Technical  Terms 176 

Carrying  Capacity  of  Pipes 179 

Flow  of  Water  Through  Straight  Pipes 179 

Power  Required  to  Raise  Water  from  Deep  Wells  by  Pumping,.  180 

Approximate  Cost  of  Different  Kinds  of  Pipe  used  for  Irrigation.  180 
Average   Cost   per   Mile   of  "Constructing   Irrigation   Canals   and 

Ditches 1 80 

Capacity  of  Windmills  and  Pumps 181 

The  California  Weir  Table 182 

Capacity  of  Cisterns  and  Tanks 182 

Capacity  of  Cisterns  in  Barrels,  per  Foot  in  Djpth 183 

Roads:   Road -making 183 

Importance  of  Good  Roads 185 

Tractive  Force  Required  for  Carriages 185 

Fraction  of  the  Weight  of  a  Vehicle  and  Load  Required  to  Move 

Same  on  a  Level  Road 186 

Tractive  Power  of  Horses  at  Different  Speeds 186 

Effect  of  Inclination  on  Tractive  Force 187 

Effects  of  Surface  on  Tractive  Force 188 

Cost  of  Hauling  Farm  Produce  in  the  United  States 188 

Transportation  on  the  Farm 189 

Labor  Done  by  one  Horse  on  Canals,  Railroads,  and  Turnpikes.  .  189 

Labor  Done  by  Team  in  Plowing 189 

The  Effect  of  ^Vide  Wagon  Tires 190 

Average  Quantity  of  Stone  Required  to  Keep  Roads  in  Rejiair.  .  190 

Interior  Dimensions  of  Farm  Buildings 191 

Recipe  for  Whitewash 191 

Table  of  Cut  Nails 192 


XII.     HUMAN  FOODS. 

Composition  of  Human  Food  Materials 103,  198 

Percentages  of  Nutrients,  Water,  and  Refuse  in  Food  Materials.  .  .  197 

Pecuniary  Economy  of  Food 200 

Amounts  of  Nutrients  Furnished  for  25  Cents  in  Food  Materials.  .  .  201 

Dietary  Standards 203 

Summary  of  American  Dietary  Studies 203 

Diagram  of  a  Good  Steer's  Carcass    as  Cut  up  and  Priced  in  East- 
em  Markets 204 

Diagrams  of  Cuts  of  Veal,  Mutton,  and  Pork 205 

Live   Weight   and    Dressed   Weight   of   Steers   of    Different    Breeds 

and  Ages 206 

Proportion  of  Beef  to  the  Live  Weight  of  Cattle 206 

Comparative  Results  Obtained  with  Fattening  Animals 207 

Live  Weight  and  Gains  Made  by  Swine 207 

Proportions  of  the  Various  Parts  of  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Swine.  .  .  .  208 


Z  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

PART    II.     DAIRYING. 
I.     DAIRY  COWS. 

PAGE 

On  the  Origin  and  Charac^jristics  of  the  Different  Breeds  of  Dairy 

Cattle 211 

I.  Jersey  Cattle.     By  the  Author    211 

II.  Guernsey  Cattle.      Prof.  W.  H.  Caldwell,  Sec'y 214 

III.  Holstein-Friesian  Cattle.      M.  H.  Gardner.  Supt.  Adv.  Reg.  21 S 

IV.  Ayrshires.     C.  M.  Winslow,  Sec'y 222 

V.   Shorthorns   as  Dairy  Cows.      By  the  Late  J.  H.  Pickrell, 

Sec'y 224 

VI.   Red  Polled  Cattle.      By  the  Late  J.  McLain    Smith,  Sec'y    227 

VII.  Devon  Cattle.     L.  P.  Sisson,  Sec'y 230 

VIII.  Dutch  Belted  Cattle.     H.  B.  Richards,  Sec'y 232 

IX.   Brown-Swiss  Cattle.      N.  S.  Fish,  Sec'y 234 

Yield  of  Milk  and  Fat  from  Dairy  Cows 236 

Results  of  Tests  of  Dairy  Breeds  Conducted  by  American  Experi- 
ment Stations 237 

Results  of  Breed  Tests  Conducted  at  World's  Columbian  Exposi- 
tion, 1893 238 

Resiilts  of  "Cow  Demonstration"  at  La.  Purchase  Exposition,  St. 

Louis,  1904 239 

HighcFt  Record  for  Yield  of  Fat  Made  by  any  Cow  in  a  Public  Test 

in  America 239 

Ofhcial  Milk  and  Butter  Records  of  Holstein   Jersey,  Guernsey,  and 

Ayrshire  Cows 240 

Results  of  English  Milking  Trials 241 

Requirements  for  Admission  to  the  Advanced  Register  of  Ameri- 
can Cattle  Clubs 241 

Average  per  Cent  of  Fat  and  Production  of  Milk  and  Butter  Fat  by 

Pure-bred  Dairy  Cows,  per  Breed 242 

Average  Percentage  Composition  of  Milk  from  Different  Breeds.  .  .    242 

Method  of  Judging  the  Value  of  Dairy  Cows 243 

Buying  and  Selling  Cows  by  Tests  of  Their  Milk 244 

Fifty  Dairy  Rules 244 

II.     MILK. 

Percentage  Composition  of  Various  Kinds  of  Milk 248 

Average  Analyses  of  American  Samples  of  Dairy  Products 248 

Average  Composition  of  Cows'  Milk,  with  Variations 249 

Composition  of  Morning  and  Evening  Milk,  and  of  Morning,  Noon, 

and  Evening  Milk 249 

Composition  of  Different  Parts  of  the  Same  Milkings 249 

Calculation  of  Components  of  Cows'  Milk 250 

Relation  of  Fat  to  Casein  and  Other  Solids 250 

Fertilizing  Ingredients  in  Dairy  Products 251 

Composition  of  Colostrum  , ,,,,,,,,, 251 


TABLE   OF   COXTEKTS.  XI 


PAGE 

Composition  of  Ash  of  Cows'  Milk  and  Colostrum 251 

A  Chapter  on  Milk  Testing 252 

Table  for  Converting  N.  Y.  Board  of  Health  Lactometer  Degrees  to 

Quevenne  Lactometer  Degrees 255 

Temperature  Correction  Table  for  Specific  Gravity  of  Milk 256 

Calculation  of  Total  Solids  of  Milk 258 

Table  for  Calculating  Total  Solids  from  Specific  Gravity  and  Fat.  .    260 

Calculation  of  Specific  Gravity  of  Milk  Solids 261 

Standards  for  Dairy  Products 262 

Government  Standards  of  Purity  for  Milk  and  its  Products 264 

Adulteration  of  Milk 267 

Ranges  of  the  Variations  in  the  Composition  of  Herd  Milk 268 

Tables  for  Converting  Quarts  of  Milk  into  Pounds,  and  vice  versa.  .    269 

Milk    Prices    by    Measures 269a 

Relative  \'alue  of  Milk  and  Cream  of  Different  Fat  Contents.  265^ 
Amounts  of  Milk,   Cream,  or  Skim-milk  to  be  used  in  ^Modifying 

Milk     \    270 

Standardization     of     i\lilk 271 

Rules  and  Regulations  for  Care  of  Cows  and  Handling  of  Milk  272 

IIL     CREAM. 

Percentage  Composition  of  Cream  and  Other  Dairy  Products 273 

Yield  of  Cream  from  Milk  of  Difi'erent  Richness 274 

Calculation  of  Per  Cent  Fat  in  Cream 275 

Hand  and  Power  Cream  Separators  on  the  American  Market,  19 13,  276 

Formulas  for  Finding  the  Fat  Content  of  Cream 278 

Formula  for  Diluting  Cream  to  a  Desired  Fat  Content 279 

Handling  and  Care  of  Cream  Separators.     J.  D.  Frederiksen,  Mgr. 

Chr.  Hansen's  Laboratory,  Little  Falls,  X.  Y 270 

Per  Cent  Fat  in  Centrifugal  Skim-milk 2S0 

Loss  of  Bvitter  Caused  by  Inefficient  Skimming 2S5 

Standardization  of  Cream 286 

Steam-boiler  and  Engine   Management.      Pruf.   A.  Yv'.   Richtcr,  of 

the  University  of  Montana 286 

On  the  Preservation  of  Milk  and  Cream  by  Heat.        Dr,    H.  L.  Rus- 
sell of  Wisconsin  Experiment  Stati'jn 290 

Directions  for  the  Sterilization  of  Milk 293 

Quantity  of  Water  or  Ice  Required  for  Cooling  Milk  or  Cream.  .  .  .  294 

IV.     BUTTER. 

Butter-making.     H.  B.   Gurlcr,  ex-President  Illinois  State   Dairy- 
men's Association 29.<; 

On  the  Use  of  Pure  Cultures  in  Butter-  and  Cheese-making 297 

Boyd's  Process  of  Cream-ripening.      John  Boyd.  Chicago,  111 301 

The  Alkaline  Tablet  Test  of  Acidity  in  Milk  or  Cream.      Prof.  E.  H. 

Farrington,  of  Wisconsin  Dairy  School 304 

Directions  for  the  Use  of  Manns'  Test  for  Ascertaining  the  Acidity 
of  Cream 306 


XU  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Percentage  Composition  of  Butter 307 

Average   Chemical   Composition    of   Sweet-cream  and   Sour-cream 

Butter 307 

Analyses  of  American  Premium  Butters .  .    308 

Analyses  of  Foreign  Samples  of  Butter 308 

Commercial  Grades  of  Butter 309 

Formula  for  Calculating  the  Yield  of  Butter .' 311 

Conversion  Factor  for  Calculating  Yield  of  Butter  from  the  Yield 

of  Butter  Fat 311 

Yield  of  Butter  from  100  Povmds  of  Cream  of  DiflFerent  Richness.  .    311 
Y:eld  of  Butter  Corresponding  to  Yield  of  Butter  Fat,  per  Day  and 
per  Week 31a 

Value  of  — for  Specific  Gravities  1.019  to  1.0399 313 

Relation  of  Fat  Content  to  Acidity  of  Skim-milk,  Milk,  and  Cream.    313 

The    Sliding    Scale    Overrun 314 

Comparative   Prices  of  Milk,   Cream,    Butter-fat,   and  Butter....    314 
Pounds  of  Milk  Required  for  Making  One  Pound  of  Butter.  .  .315,  316 

Distribution  of  Milk  Ingredients  in  Butter-making 316 

Score  for  Judging  Butter 316 

English  Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Butter 317 

Score  in  Judging  Proficiency  of  Butter-makers 317 

Analyses  of  American  Dairy  Salts 318 

Temperatures  at  which   Dairy  Products  should  be  Stored  in  Cold 

Storage 318 

V.     CHEESE. 

How    American    Cheese    is     Made.     By    the  Late   Prof.    John  W. 

Decker,  of  Ohio  Dairy  School 319 

A.  Factory  or  Cheddar  Cheese 319 

B.  Cheese  Made  on  the  Farm 321 

Causes  of  Tainted  Milk 322 

Detecting  Bad  Milk.     Directions  for  Operating  the  Wisconsin  Curd 

Test 322 

The  Fermentation  Test 32if 

Determination  of  Humidity  in  Cheese-curing  Rooms 326 

Table  Showing  Relative  Htunidity  of  the  Air 327 

Score  for  Judging  Cheese 329 

Percentage  Composition  of  Cheese 329 

Varieties  and  Analyses  of  Cheese 330 

Distribution  of  Ingredients  in  Cheese-making 330 

Formulas  for  Finding  Yield  of  Cheddar  Cheese 331 

Yield  of  Different  Kinds  of  Cheese  from  100  lbs.  of  Milk 332 

Average  Loss  of  American  Cheddar  Cheese  in  Curing 333 

Loss  in  Weight  of  Different  Kinds  of  Cheese  During  Curing 333 

Yield  of  Cheese  from,  and  Relative  Cheese  Value  of,  Milk  of  DiflFerent 

Richness 334 

Synopsis  of  Manufacture  of  Principal  Varieties  of  Cheese 336 

The    Cheese   Market   of  the   United    States 3360 

Commercial   Grades   of   American   Cheddar   Cheese 336a 

Quantities  of  Whey  to  be  Returne(i  to  Patrons •••?>♦'  337 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS.  Xlii 

VI.     MANAGEMENT  OF  CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE 
FACTORIES. 

PACK 

Directions  for  Taking  and  Preserving:  Composite  Samples  of  Milk 

in  Creameries  and  Cheese  Factories 338 

Payment  for  Milk  at  Creameries  and  Cheese  Factories 340 

Methods  of  Payment  for  Milk  at  Cheese  and  Butter  Factories 341 

Price  of  Milk  of  Different  Richness  per  Hundred  Pounds 343 

Directions  for  Making  Dividends  in  Creameries  and  Cheese  Factories  345 

Yield  of  Butter  from  100  lbs.  Milk,  according  to  Different  Overruns  346 

Table  Showing  Average  Per  Cent  of  Fat  in  Milk 347 

Suggestions  to  Patrons  of  Cheese  Factories  and  Creameries 349 

By-laws  and  Rules  for  Co-operative  Creamery  Associations 351 

By-laws  and  Rules  for  Co-operative  Cheese  Factories 354 

Rules  for  Patrons  and  Instructions  to  Cream  or  Milk  Gatherers.  .  .  356 


PART    III.     GENERAL   TOPICS. 

I.     CONSTITUTIONS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCIATIONS. 

Constitution  and  By-laws  of  Agricultural  Clubs .    35Q 

Constitution  of  Village-improvement  Societies 364 

Constitution  of  Road  Leagues 355 

Co-operative    Breeders'    Association 3670 

Dairy   Test   Associations    367b 

II.     MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS  AND  TABLES. 

Explanation  of  Flag  and   Whistle   Signals  Adopted  by  the   U.  S. 

Weather  Bureau 368 

'jfixplanation  of  Storm  and  Hurricane  Warnings 369 

List  of  Headquarters  of  State  Weather  Services 370 

Beneficial  and  Harmful  Hawks  and  Owls 370 

How  Patents  are  Issued 371 

Legal  Holidays 375 

What  to  do  in  Case  of  Accidents.     J.  Noer,  M.D.,  Stoughton,  Wis.  377 

Treatment  for  Poisoning 380 

Interest  Tables 382 

Wages  by  the  Week  and  the  Day 383 

Number  of  Days  between  Dates  within  Tw^o  Years 384 

Domestic  and  Foreign  Postage 385 

Postal  and  Express  Money  Order  Rates 386 

III.     WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

Customary  System  of  Weights  and  Measures 387 

Metric  System  of  Weights  and  Measures 388 

Conversion  of  U.  S.  Weights  and  Measures  to  Metric,  and  vice  versa  389 

Kilogram?  Converted  into  Pounds,  and  vice  versa 3go 

Inches  Reduced  to  Decimals  of  a  Foot 3qo 

Ounces  Reduced  to  Decimals  of  a  Pound 3qo 

Weight  and  Measure  Conversion  Table 3gi 


Xiv  TABLE   OF    CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Table  of  Reciprocals  of  Numbers 392 

Comparisons  of    Fahrenheit,  Centigrade,  and  Rdaumur   Thermom- 
eter Scales 392 

Government  Land  Measures 396 

To  Measure  Com  on  the  Cob  in  Cribs 397 

Reckoning  of  Amount  and  Value  of  Hay  in  Mows  or  Stacks 397 

Strength  of  Hemp,  Manila  and  Wire  Ropes 399 

Legi.1  Weights  of  Grain,  Seeds,  etc 400 

Commercial  Grades  of  Grain < 40  r 

Grades  of  Hay  and  Straw 406a 

Specific  Gravity  of  Various  Substances 407 

Values  of  Foreign  Coins 409 

Money  Conversion  Table 410 

IV.     STATISTICAL   TABLES. 

United  States,  Area  and  Population,  igio 411 

Canada,  Area  and  Population,   1912 411 

Normal  Mean  Temperature  of  the  Air  in  the  United  States 412 

Average  and  Actual  Date  of  Last  and  First  Killing  Frost 413 

Normal  Precipitation  in  the  United  States 415 

Meteorological  Data  for  Canada 416 

Comparison  of  Leading  Industries  in  the  United  States 416 

Areas  of  Appropriated,  Vacant,  and  Reserved  Lands  in  the  United 

States 417 

Farming  Populition  of  the  United  States,  1880-1900 417 

Number  and  Classification  of  the  Agricultural  Population,  10  Years 

and  Over 418 

Number  of  Farms  in  the  United  States,  and  their  Value 418 

Statistics  Concerning  Farms  in  the  United  States 419 

Statistics  of  the  Principal  Crops  in  the  United  States  in  1912 420 

Average  Agricultural  Wages  in  the  United  States  in  1893-1895.  .  .  .    424 

Industry  Groups  in  the  United  States 424 

Area,    Production,    and   Value   of   Principal    Crops   in   the    United     ijj 

States,  1912 425 

The  Principal  Cereal  Products  of  the  United  States,  1850-1910..  .  .    425 

Production  of  Various  Crops  in  Canada,  1901 425 

Average  Cost  per  Acre  of  Raising  Wheat,  Corn,  and  Cotton  in  the 

United  States,  1893 426 

Average  Farm  Price  of  Agricultural  Products,  1890-1910 426 

Number  and  Value  of  Farm  Animals  in  the  United  States,  1880-1910  427 

Values  of  Farm  Property  and  Products  in  Canada,  1901 427 

Number  of  Farm  Animals  and  Animal  Products  in  Canada,  1901.  .  427 
Breeds  and  Number  of  Registered  Live  Stock  in  the  United  States, 

Dec.  31.  190S 42f 

Pure-bred  Cattle  of  Breeds  Used  for  Dairying 429 

Number  and  Average  Price  of  Farm  Animals  in  the  United  States, 

January  i,  1913 430 

Dairy  Statistics  for  the  United  States,  1900 432 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS.  XV 


PAGE 

Statistics  of  Butter,  Cheese,  and  Condensed-milk  Factories  (Twelfth       J 

Census) 434 

Butter-  and  Cheese-making  in  Canada,  1901 435 

Wool  Product  of  the  United  States,  19 12 435 

Production  of  Sugar  in  the  United  States,  1870-1911 435 

Statistics  of  Beet-sugar  Factories  in  the  United  States  for  1912..  .  .  436 

Production  of  Cane-  and  Beet-sugar,  1903-19 1 1 436 

Maple-sugar    and    Sirup,    and    Sorghum    Sirup    Produced    in    the 

United  States,  1899 437 

Statistics  of  the  Lumber  Industry  of  the  United  States,  1906 437 

Poultry  and  Egg  Products  in  the  United  States,  1879-1899 438 

Production  of  Honey  and  Beeswax  in  the  United  States,  According 

to  Census  Returns  of  1869-1899 438 

Bees,  Honey,  and  Wax  in  the  United  States,  1899 438 

Imports  and  Exports  of  Agricultural  Products  in  the  United  States, 

1911-1912 439 

Domestic  Exports  of  Butter  and  Cheese,  1870-1912 446 

Exports  of  Dairy  Products  from  Canada,  1870-1910 446 

The  Fertilizer  Industry  of  the  United  States 447 

Imports  and  Exports  of  Fertilizers  in  1896 4/7 

Imports  of  Fertilizers  and  Fertilizer  Materials,  1896 447 

Rank  of  States  as  Regards  Value  of  Agricultural  Products 448 

V.     DIRECTORY  OF  AGRICULTURAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

Organization  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 452 

Ministers  and  Commissioners  of  Agriculture  in  Canada 453 

State  Officials  in  Charge  of  Agriculture  in  the  United  States 453 

American  Educational  Institutions  Having  Courses  in  Agriculture .  454 

Statistics  of  Agricultural  Schools  and  Colleges  in  the  United  States.  456 

List  of  American  Veterinary'-  Colleges 456 

Veterinary  and  Sanitary  Officers  in  Charge  of  Live-stock  Interests.  456 

Dairy  Schools  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 457 

Schools  of  Forestry 457 

Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  458 

Officials  in  Charge  of  Farmers'  Institutes 459 

VI.     AGRICULTURAL  AND  DAIRY  LITERATURE. 

More  Important  Works  on  Dairying 460 

A  List  of  Sixty  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  Books 462 

List  of  American  and  Foreign  Dairy  Papers 464 

The  Main  American  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  Papers 466 

Index 47 1 


COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS, 


Chart  showing  Pounds  of  Water  and  of 
Digestible  Matter  in  100  lbs. 


Water 
I 1 


Digestible 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohydrates 


60      90     100  Ibi. 


Favture  grass 
Oreen  clover 
Oreen  com 
Com  silage 
Fodder  Corn 
Com  stalks 
Timothy  hay 
Red  Clover  hay 
Oat  straw 
Potatoes 
Mangelwurzela 
Carrots 
Indian  Com 
Wheat 
Barley 
Oata 
Rye 

Pea  meal 
Com  <£■  cob  meal 
Corn  cob 
Wheat  bran. 
Wheat  middlings 
Rice  bran 
Linseed  meal  O.P. 
Linseed  meal  N.P. 
Cotton  seed  meal 
Cotton  seed  hulls 
Oluten  meal 
2Ialt  sprouts 
Brewers'  grains 


3S 


-a^ 


10      20     80     40      50     eo      70     80     90     100R)4 


I 


PART  I.    AGRICULTURE. 


I.      FEEDING    S^IT^FFS. 
COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 

In  the  ordinary  chemical  analysis  of  feeding  stuffs  the 
following  constituents  are  determined,  viz.,  water,  ash,  pro- 
tein, crude  fiber,  nitrogen-free  extract,  ether  extract  (fat). 

Water  is  present  in  all  feeding  stuffs,  from  above  90  per 
cent  in  green  foods  and  some  kinds  of  roots,  to  below  10  per 
cent  in  very  dry  hay  and  in  concentrated  food  stuffs. 

Ash,  or  mipTal  matter,  is  the  non-combustible  part  of 
plants,  and  goes  to  make  the  bones  of  the  animal,  or  to  sup- 
ply material  for  the  maintenance  of  other  parts  of  the  ani- 
mal body. 

Protein  is  the  name  of  a  large  group  of  substances,  all 
characterized  by  the  fact  that  they  contain  the  element  ni- 
trogen; hence  they  are  also  called  nitrogenous  substances, 
and  foods  rich  in  protein  are  spoken  of  a's,  nitrogenous  foods. 
The  protein  substances  supply  the  material  necessary  for  the 
formation  of  lean  meat,  ligaments,  tendons,  hair,  horns, 
hoofs,  etc.,  and  also  of  casein  of  the  milk.  Crude  protein 
includes  albujuinoids  and  amides;  among  the  former  are 
found  white  of  egg,  lean  meat,  curd  of  milk,  and  gluten; 
among  the  latter,  asparagin  and  other  crystallizable  and 
water-soluble  substances,  generally  speaking,  of  a  somewhat 
inferior  nutritive  value. 

Crude  Fiber  or  woody  fiber  is  the  framework  of  plants, 
forming  the  walls  of  their  cells  ;  it  is  usually  the  least 
digestible  portion  of  feeding  stuffs,  and  the  nutritive  value 
of  a  plant  is  decreased  as  its  crude  fiber  content  increases. 

Allrogen-free  Extract  includes  starch,  sugar,  gums,  or- 
ganic acids,  etc.,  and  forms  a  most  important  and  usually  a 
very  large  part  of  cattle  foods.  Together  with  cellulose, 
nitrogen-free  extract  forms  the  group  of  bodies  called  carbo 

X 


2  ....      AGRICULTURE. 

hydrates.  A  general  name  for  carbohydrates  is  heat-produc- 
ing substances,  as  against  flesh-fortning  substances,  i.e., 
nitrogenous  compounds,  the  names  indicating  the  main 
offices  of  the  substances  in  animal  nutrition. 

Ether  Extract,  or  crude  fat  {oil)  includes  a  group  of  com- 
pounds dissolved  out  by  ether  in  the  analysis  of  foods;  fat 
forms  the  main  part  of  the  extract;  most  feeding  stuffs 
contain  only  a  small  quantity  of  fat,  but  this  component 
is  nevertheless  of  considerable  importance  in  the  feeding 
of  animals. 

Organic  ^Tatter  signifies  the  combustible  portion  of  chemi- 
cally dry  feeding  stuffs,  i.e.,  all  the  components  given  in  the 
preceding  except  water  and  ash. 

Digestible  Components. — The  food  stuffs  used  in  the  feed- 
ing of  farm  animals  are  only  partly  of  direct  value  to  the 
animals,  the  portion  which  their  digestive  fluids  are  unable 
to  dissolve  being  voided  in  the  excrements.  The  digesti- 
bility of  fodders  has  been  determined  by  direct  experiments 
with  different  kinds  of  farm  animals,  in  this  country  or 
abroad.  The  digestion  coefficients  (see  pp.  6-8)  mean  the 
percentages  of  any  one  component  which  have  been  found 
to  be  digested  by  the  animals  experimented  on. 

Nutritive  Ratio  signifies  the  ratio  between  the  digestible 
nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  components  in  a  feeding 
stuff,  or  a  combination  of  such.  As  fat  has  been  found  to 
yield  about  2.2  times  more  heat,  when  burned,  than  do  starch, 
sugar,  and  other  carbohydrates,  the  per  cent  of  digestible 
fat  in  a  food  is  multiplied  by  2.2  when  the  nutritive  ratio  is 
to  be  calculated;  the  product  is  added  to  the  per  cent  of 
digestible  carbohydrates  (nitrogen-free  extract  -|-  crude 
fiber),  and  this  sum  is  divided  by  the  per  cent  of  digestible 
protein.  (The  factor  i\  or  2\  is  sometimes  used  for  obtain- 
ing "the  starch  equivalent"  of  fat.) 

Example:  Clover  hay  contains  on  the  average  6.5  per  cent 
digestible  protein,  34.9  per  cent  digestible  carbohydrates,  and 
1.6  per  cent  digestible  fat  (see  following  table): 

1.6X2.2  =  3.52;     34.9+3.52  =  38.42;     38.42-^6.5  =  5.9. 

Nutritive  ratio,  i  :  5.9. 


FEEDIXa    STUFFS. 


AVERAGE  COMPOSITIOX  OF  AMERICAN 
FEEDING   STUFFS. 


Feeding  Stuffs. 


Green  Fodders  and 
Silage. 

Pasture  grass 

Green       fodder       corn 

(maize) 

Alfalfa  (lucern) 

Green  clover 

Aisike  clover,  in  bloom 

Rye  fodder 

Oat  fodder 

Sorghum  fodder 

Red  top,  in  bloom 

Meadow       fescue,      in 

bloom 

Timothy 

Blue-grass 

Prickly  comfrey 

Corn  silage 

Corn  silage,  Wis.  anal. 

Clover  silage 

Sorghum  silage  


Hay  and  Dry  Coarse 
Fodders. 

Fodder  corn  (maize), 
field  cured. 

Same,  Wis.  analyses,. 

Corn  stalks  (stover), 
field  cured 

Hay  from  red  clover. 

Hay  from  mammoth 
clover 

Hay  f'm  alfalfa  (lucern) 

Hay  from  aisike  clover 

Oat  hay .... 

Timothy  hay 

Hay  from  mixed  mea- 
dow grasses 

Hay  from  Hun.  grass. 

Flax  hay 

Crab-grass  hay    ...... 

Marsh  hay 

Oat  straw 

Barley  strawt 

Wheat  straw 

Rye  straw 

Buckwheat  straw 

Pea  vinet 


Percentage  Composition.* 


So.o 

79 

71 

70.8 

74.8 

76.6 

62 

79 
64.8 

69.9 
61 .6 
65.1 
88.4 

79- 
73- 
72. 
76. 


42 
29.0 

40 
'5-3 

21.2 

8.4 
9-7 
8.9 
13- 


16 
7-7 

11,14.3 
10.3 

7-9 

9.2 

14.2 

9.6 

7-1 

9.9 
13.6 


14 


2.7 
2.1 
2.0 
1.8 

2.5 

1. 1 

2.3 

1.8 
2. 1 
2.8 
2.2 
1.4 
2. 1 
2.6 
i.r 


2.7 
4.2 


3-4 


U 


U 


5 

7-4 


7-4 
II. 6 


6 
9.4 


2.4  10.8 


3-1 
4.1 
2.4 

1-7 
2.7 
4.2 


4-5 
6.5 


9 

1.6 

6.0 

7 
8.4 

6.4 


^ 

4-> 

0 

u 

•A 

'   rt 

u 

C   L. 

..-» 

U    4-. 

X 

MX 

rri 

pW 

u 

♦J  1) 

<u 

^  <u 

JZ 

,^    4- 

■*-^ 

fcl  w 


9-7 


12.3 

13-5 

II  .0 

6.8 

19-3 
II. 6 
19. 


14.3 
20.2 
17.6 

1 1 . 1 
12. y 
II. 6 
15-3 


14-3  .34-7 
36.5 


3.8  19.7 
6.2|I2.3  24.8 

6.1  10.7  24.5 
7.4I14.3  25  o 

8.3  12.8  25.6 
6.2J  7.6  29.3 

4.4  5.929.0 


4.6 
6.0 

5-5 
7-3 
5-2 
5-1 
5-7 
4.2 

3-2 
.S-S 
6.6 


6.4  29.9 
7-S  27.7 
32.0 

32-9 
30. 1 
o  37.0 
5  36-0 
3-4  38.1 
3-0  38.9 
5-2:43-o 
9035-5 


3^-9 
38.1 

33-6 

42.7 
40.7 

45-1 
450 

41 .0 
49.0 
30.1 
41.0 
46.3 
42.4 
39-0 
43-4 
46.5 

35-1 
33-7 


c  Ji 

.-«   'A 

o 


•5  19-5 
•025.5 
.1  27.1 
.9  23.2 
.6  21 .6 
4  35-3 
•5  19-5 


1.2132.9 

.828,3 
1.2  36.3 
I  3  32 

•3    9-4 

.819.5 

.9  24 
1.2  25.4 

•3  22.8 


•655 
.766.8 


1.1  56 
3-378 

3-9  72 

2.2  84 
2.9  82 
2.9  84 
2.582 

2 • I ' 79 
2.1  86 

3-1 
1.6 
2.7 


2-3 
1-5 
1-3 
1.2 

1-3 
1.6 


Per  cent 

Digestible 

Matter. 


2.6  10.6 


1-3 
3-6 
2.9 
2.7 
2.1 
2.7 
.8 

2-3 

1-7 
2.2 

29 
1.4 


.6 


2.6 
3-7 

2.0 

6.5 

5-7 
10.3 
6.8 
4-3 
3  o 

3-6 
4-5 
7.2 
2.2 

3-5 
1.6 

•  9 


2.3 
4-3 


II. 8 

11.4 

14- 

13- 

14. 

22. 

12.7 

20 

17.8 
23 
19 
4.6 
II. 6 
14.0 

13 

14.9 


33-3 
40.4 

33-4 
34-9 

32. 
41.4 

36.8 
46.4 
43-9 

42.7 
46.4 
36.6 
42.8 
44-7 


» 


.6 
1.6 

1.9 
i.x 

1.4 

1-5 
1.2 

i.o 
i.o 

1.8 

.6 

1-7 

•7 

.6 

•5 

•4 
.6 


*  Largely   from    Jenkins    and    Winton's    Compilation   of    Analyses   0/ 
American  Feeding  Stuffs.  t  Konig. 


AGiacULTURE. 

AV^PJRAGE    C03IP0SITI0N    OF   A3IERICAN 
FEEDING    STUFFS.— C^«//-««^^. 


Feeding  Stuffs. 


Roots  and  Tubers. 


Potatoes   

Swoet  potatoes 

Red  beets 

Sui^ar  beets  . .  . 
M.inirel-wurzels. 
IvUtatiaKas.    ... 

1  iiriiips  

("ai  iMis 

Artichoke 


Grains  and  F/our  M ill 
Products. 

Corn  (maize)         

Corn  and  cob  meal.    . . 

Corn  cob 

Corn  bran  (hulls) 

Oats. ...    

Oat  shorts* 

Oat  feed    

Oat  hulls 

Oat  dust 

Barley 

Barley  screenings..     .. 

Wheat 

Wheat  bran— roller  pro- 
cess.  ...    

Wheat  bran-  old  pro- 
cess    

Wheat  shorts   

Wheat  middlings 

Wheat  screenings.. 

Low-grade  flour  ("red 
dog") 

Rye 

Rye  bran 

Rye  shorts 

Huckwiieat    

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwiteat  shorts..    .    . 

Biickwhcai  midjhngs.. 

Rice 

Rice  b;an 

Rice  hulls 

Rice  polish , 

Hea  meal 


4) 
tn 

Percentage  Composition. 

c 

u 

0 

m 

w 

b. 

03 

rt 

V. 

u 

<: 

u 

C  X 

X 

• 

Ph 

tL, 

vbj 

W 

ofc 

o 

d 
7^ 

u 

w 

X 
^ 

X! 
< 

3 

u 

<U 

•a 

0  Ji 

x: 

c  ti 

0 

12 

78.9 

1.0 

2.1 

.6 

173 

.1 

20.  T 

6 

71. 1 

I 

0 

1-5 

1-3 

24.7 

•4 

27.9 

988.5 

I 

0 

I -.5 

•9 

8.0 

.1 

10.  s 

19  86.5 

9 

1.8 

■9 

9.8 

.1 

12.6 

9  90.9 

I 

I 

1.4 

•9 

5-5 

.2 

8.0 

4  88.6 

I 

2 

1 . 2 

1-3 

7-5 

.2 

10.2 

^ 

QO.,S 

8 

I.I 

1.2 

6.2 

.2 

8.7 

8 

88.6 

I 

0 

i.i 

1-3 

7.6 

•4 

10.4 

2 

79-5 

I 

0 

2.6 

.8 

15-9 

.2 

19-5 

.08 

10, Q 

i-S 

10.5 

2.1 

69.6 

.S-4 

87.6 

7 

IS.  1 

I-S 

8.5 

6.6 

64.8 

3-5 

83.4 

18 

10.7 

1.4 

2.4 

30.1 

.54-9 

•5 

87.9 

.S 

O.I 

'•3 

q.o 

12  7 

'2.2 

5-8 

89.6 

>o 

II. 0 

3-c' 

.1.8 

0-S 

S9   7 

■S-o 

86.0 

t. 

10.0 

S  2 

10.2 

7-S 

S4-.S 

6.6 

84.8 

4 

7  7 

3.7 

16.0 

6.1 

^9-4 

7   ' 

88.6 

1 

7-3 

6.7 

3.3 

29.7 

S2.1 

1.0 

86.0 

a 

6.S 

69 

I3-S 

18.2 

50.2 

4.8 

86.6 

10 

10. 9 

2.4 

12.4 

2.7 

69.8 

1.8 

86.7 

2 

12.2 

3.6 

12.3 

7  3 

61.8 

2.8 

84.2 

310 

10.5 

1.8 

II. 9 

1. 8 

71.9 

2.1 

87.7 

7 

12.0 

56 

16. 1 

8.4 

53-7 

4-2 

82.4 

0 

12.0 

4.9 

13.0 

8.1 

58.2 

3.8 

83.1 

12 

II. 8 

4.6 

14.9 

7-4 

56.8 

4-5 

83.6 

?,^ 

12. 1 

3-4 

15-7 

4-7 

60.2 

4.0 

84  5 

10 

II. 6 

2.9 

'2-5 

4-9 

65. 1 

3-0 

"5.5 

8 

10. 0 

2.2 

15.8 

1.6 

67.7 

2.7 

87.8 

6 

II. 6 

I.O 

10.6 

1-7 

72.5 

1-7 

86.  s 

7 

11.6 

3.6 

14.7 

3..S 

63.8 

2.8 

84.8 

I 

9-.3 

5-9 

18  0 

,5-1 

.S9-9 

2.8 

8s. 8 

8 

12.6 

2.0 

10. 0 

8.7 

64-5 

2.2 

85-4 

2 

10.  s 

3-0 

12.4 

31.0,38.8 

3-^' 

36.  s 

- 

II  .t 

5' 

27.1 

8.3 

40.8 

7.6 

83.8 

t> 

12.7 

5   ' 

28.2 

4.2 

42.3 

7-5 

82.2 

ID 

12.4 

•4 

7-4 

.2 

79.2 

•4 

87.2 

s 

Q-7 

lO.O 

12.1 

9-S 

4Q.q 

8.8 

80.3 

3 

8.- 

13.? 

3.6 

i--.-? 

38.6 

•7 

78.6 

4  ro.o 

6.7  1  1.7 

6.3 

58.0 

7  3 

83.3 

2 

10.5 

2. 

^ 

20.2 

14.4 

51-1 

i.^ 

86.9 

Per  cent 

Digestible 

Matter. 


c 

u 

0 

!>>  tfl 

J=   U 

u 

3   - 

T3 

.0  i" 

3 

rt-a 

u 

U 

1.4 

16.1 

•9 

22.2 

•9 

7.6 

I.I 

9-3 

I.I 

4  8 

.9 

71 

.6 

5-5 

1.0 

7-' 

2.0 

16.8 

7-^ 

04.8 

^•^ 

56  3 

1.6 

43-9 

5-0 

59.8 

q.i 

44-7 

12.6 

4.5-7 

12.5 

46.9 

'•3 

40.1 

8.9 

38.4 

9-5 

66.1 

9-3 

57-3 

9.2 

64.9 

12.6 

44.1 

10. 1 

47-5 

II. 6 

45-4 

12.2 

47.2 

9.8 

51.0 

n-5 

61.3 

8.3 

6.5.. 5 

9-7 

48.0 

II. 9 

45.1 

7-7 

49-2 

7-4 

30  4 

21.1 

33  5 

22.0 

33-4 

4.8,72.2 

5-3!45i 

1. 6144. 5 

9.0I56.4 

i8.ois6.o 


*  Konig. 


FEEDIJs^G    STUFFS. 

AVERAGE    C03IP0SITI0X   OF   AMERICAN 
FEEDING    STVFFS~i Contiuiwd). 


Feeding  Stuffs. 


Percentage  Composition. 


Sorghum  seed. 
Broom  com.  . 

Flaxseed 

Cow  pea 

Soja  bean.  .  .  . 


io;i2.8 

2  II. 5 

50'   9.2 

5^14.8 
8  10.8 


Miscellaneous  Feeds. 

Malt  sprouts 

Brewers'  grains,  wet .  . 
Brewers'  grains,  dried. 
Hominy  chops  (meal). 

Gluten  feed 

Cream  gluten  meal.  .  . 
Chicago  gluten  meal.  . 

Com  oil  cake 

Germ  meal(corn  germ) 

Grano-gluten j      3I    5 

.65 


5 
15 

5i 
14 

71 
5 
3! 
3 
4 


Starch  feed,  wet. 

Cotton-seed  meal  .  .  .  . 

Cotton-seed  hulls  .  .  .  . 

Linseed  meal,  old  pro- 
cess  

Linseed  meal ,  new  pro- 
cess  

Palm-nut  meal  * 

Sugar-beet  leaves.  .  .  . 

Prickly  comfrey 

Rape 

Pumpkins 

Apples  * 

Apple  pomace 

Beet  molasses 

Beet  pulp 

Dried  beet  pulp 

Molasses  beet  pulp  .  .  . 

Meat-scraps  *....... 

Dried  blood  * 

Skimmed  milk* 

Buttermilk  * 

Whev  * 


14 
600 


9.0 

75-7 
7-7 

10. 0 
8.3 
8.2 

9-5 

9.0 

10.4 

7 
4 


41 


I44j 

3 1 
96] 

46' 


8.2 
9.9 

9.2 

10. 1 
10.4 
88.0 
""  4 
5 
9 


2  84 


90 

I84. 

76. 

20. 

89. 
4 
3. 

10. 
8, 

90, 

90. 

93 


2.1  9.1 
3.4  10.2 
4.3J22.6 

3.2'20.8 

4.7134-0 


■9  24 

•  o|    5 

.6122 

•5  9 
.921 

.3I32 

•  9i35 
•4,24 
.6  10 

•7 
•3 


31- 
6. 
.2  42. 

•qI    4- 


5-7,32.9 
5-833.2 


4-3 
2.4 
2.2 

2.0 

•  5 
.5 
•5 

10.6 
.6 
4.1 
4-5 
4-T 
4-7 
■  7 

•  7 
-7 


16.8 

2.6 

2.4 

2.3 

1-3 

•4 

1-4 

9-1 

•9 

8.3 

9.8 

71.2 

84-4 

3-i 

4.0 

.9 


O 


2.6 
7-1 

7-1 
4-1 
4.8 


69.8 
63-6 
23.2 


w 


3-685.1 
3-0  85.1 

33. 7|86. 5 
55. 7|  1.4^82.0 
28.8  16.9,84.5 


47.0 
12.5 
47-9 
64.4 


I  r.o 
3-8 

12.3 
3-7 
6.8149.6 
1.7,42.0 
1.546-S 
6.7  43-6 
5.0  64 


1-7 


6 

6-3 

8.5 

I  2.7 

14. 1 

5-6 


3 
7 
6 

S 

5 
6 
I3.5'88.6 


II. 4 
3-1 
5-6 

47-4 


34-8 
22.0 
23-8 
33-2 


8. 9^35-4 

9-5138.5 
24.0  35.0 
2.2  4.4 
1.6'  S.I 
2.6  8.4 
1.7!  5-2 
1-5  12.5 
3.9  16.2 

59.5 

2.4  6.3 
19.0  63.5 
18.6  62.7 
•3 


6.8 
14.2 

3-1 
12.9 


2.2  87.2 


7.9 


3-0 
9-5 


S5-I 


4-7 
4.0 
4.8I 


«5-3 
9.6 

9-4 

13-S 

8.6 

14-7 

22.8 

68.6 

.  ...i    9-6 

.7  91-5 

.7i9i-8 

i3-7i85-2 

2.586.8 

.8    8.9 

I. I     9.2 

-3 1    5-9 


Per  cent 

Digestible 

Matter. 


7.0 

7-4 
20.6 
18.3 


52.1 
48.3 
17. 1 
54-2 


29.6  17.9 


19.8 
3-9 

16.2 
8.9 

t8.6 

29-5 
32.2 
22.3 
9.0 
26.7 


28.3 

27.2 
16.0 
1-7 
1-4 
1-5 
i.o 

.3 
1.0 

9-1 

.6 

5.8 

6.6 

68.4 

58.1 

3-1 

3-0 

.S 


36.2 

9.5 

35-5 

61.0 

48.3 
39-6 
44-1 
42.6 

6l.2 

38.8 
21.7 
18.1 
26.2 

32.8 

32.9 

52.6 

4.6 

4.6 

8.1 

5-8 

12.8 

II. 9 


W 


3-1 
2.9 

29.0 
I.I 

iS-9 


1-7 
1-3 

5-3 

7.8 

II. I 

12.8 

5-1 
12.3 

6.2 
12.4 

2.3 

12.3 

1.8 

7.1 

2.7 

9.0 

.2 


4-7 
4-o| 
4-71 


.6 

.6 

13-5 

2.3 

.8 
I.I 

•3 


*  Konig. 


6 


AGRICULTURE. 


READY  REFERENCE  TABLE  OF  C03IP0SITI0N  OF 
FEEDS.   (Hills.) 

The  following  tables  save  calculations  of  percentages,  since,  the  weights 
and  contents  being  given  in  pounds,  it  is  only  necessary  to  find  the  kind 
and  desired  amount  of  a  certain  feed,  and  the  tables  give  the  exact  food 
contents  in  pounds;  e.g.,  15  lbs.  of  Green  Fodder  Com  contain  3.1  lbs. 
of  dry  matter,  0.17  lbs.  of  digestible  protein,  and  1.9  lbs.  digestible  car- 
bohydrates and  fat. 


Pounds  of 
Feed. 


Green 
Fodders 

2i 

5    

10    

15    

20    

25  

30  

35  

40  

2* 

5    

10    

15    

20    

25  

30  

35  

40  

2i 

5    

10    

IS  

20  

25  

30  

35  

40  

TFTTT 

5  

10  

15  

20  

25    

30 

35 

40    


Q. 


CL, 


Co 

O 


Pasture  Grass 
I  :  4-8 


0.5 


0.06 
0.12 
0.23 
0.35 
0.46 
0.58 
o.  69 
0.81 
o.  92 


1-7 
2 .  2 
2.8 


Green  Fodder 
Com  ,1:11.7 


0.5 

1 .0 

2 . 1 
31 
41 
5-2 
6.2 
7.2 
8-3 
Oats 


•  03 
.06 
.  II 
.17 
.  22 
.28 
■  33 
.39 

•  44 


5-2 
and  Peas, 

I  :  4.2 


o.S 
I  .  I 
2 . 1 

3-2 

4-3 
5-3 
6.4 
7.5 
8.5 


0.07 
0.14 
o.  27 
0.41 
0.54 
0.68 
0.81 
0.95 
I  .08 


0.3 
0.5 
I .  I 
1-7 
2.3 
2.9 

3-4 
4.0 
4.6 


Com  Silage, 
I  :  14.8 


0.7 
1  .3 
2.6 
3-9 
5-3 
6.6 

7-9 

9.2 

lo.S 


0.0^ 
0.06 


•24 
•  30 
.36 
.42 
.48 


1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4-5 
5-3 
6.2 

7-1 


a, 


Co 

o 


Timothy  Grass 
I  :  14-3 


.0 

0.04 

.9 

0.08 

.8 

0.15 

.8 

0.23 

•  7 

0.30 

.6 

0.3S 

5 

0.45 

4 

0.53 

4 

0.60 

0.5 


Green  Oat  Fod- 
der, I  :  8.7 


o  .06 
0.12 
o.  24 
0.36 
0.48 
o.  60 
0.72 
0.84 
0.96 


0.5 
I  .0 
2 .  I 

31 
4.2 

5-2 
6.2 

7-3 

8.3 

Barley  and  Peas, 
I  :  3-2 


0.5 


3-1 
4.1 
5-2 
6.2 
7-2 
8.2 


.07 
•  14 
.28 
■  42 

.56 

.  70  ' 

.84 

.98 

.  12  I 


Corn 
lage 


Stover  Si- 
,  I  :  16.6 


0.5 
1 .0 
1.9 
2.9 
3-9 
4.8 
5.8 
6.8 
7-7 


0.03 
0.06 
0.09 
0.12 
o.is 
0.18 
0.21 
o.  24 


1-5 
2  .0 

2.5 
3-0 
3-5 
4.0 


Q. 


TO 

o 


Ky.  Blue  Grass, 
I  :  9.2 


0.9 
1.8 
3-5 

5-2 

7.0 

8.7 

IO-5 

12.2 

14.0 


0  .05 

0. 

0. 10 

0 . 

0.  20 

I . 

0.30 

2. 

0.40 
0.  50 
0 .  60 
0.  70 

0.80 

3 

4 
5 
6 
7 

Green  Rye  Fod- 
der,  I  :_7.2 

0.6 


0.05 

0.4 

0.  II 

0.7 

0.21 

1-5 

0.32 

2.3 

0.42 

30 

0.52 

3.8 

0.63 

4-5 

0.74 

5-3 

0.84 

6.0 

3-5 
4-7 
5-9 
7.0 
8.2 

Red  Clover 
C<Treen)  i  :  5.7 


•7 

0.07 

•  5 

0.15 

•9 

0 .  29 

•4 

0.44 

•9 

0.58 

3 

0.73 

8 

0.87 

2 

1 .02 

7 

1.16 

0.4 
0.8 

1.6 
2.5 
3-3 
41 
4.9 
5-7 
6.6 


Clover  Silage, 
I  :  4-7 


4.2 
5.6 
7.0 
8.4 
9.8 


o  .07 
o .  14 
o .  27 
o  .41 

0.54 
0.68 
0.81 
0.95 
1.08 


0.3 
0.6 

1-3 
1.9 
2.6 
3-2 
3-9 
4-5 
5-1 


FEEDING    STUFFS. 


COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDS— {Continued). 


Pounds  of 
Feed. 


Ph 


03 


Potatoes,  I  :  17.3 


0.5 


0.02 
0.05 
o .  og 
0.14 
0.18 
0.23 

O  .  27 
0.32 
0.36 


0.4 
0.8 


Mangel  Wurtzels. 
I  :  4.9 


0.03 
o  .06 

O.  I  I 

0.17 
0.22 
0.28 
0.33 
0.39 
0.44 


0  .  I 

0.3 
0.5 

0.8 

1  .  I 

1 .4 

1.6 
I  .9 
2 .  2 


Skim  Milk,  i  :  2.0 


o .  2 

0-5 
0.9 
1.4 
1.9 
2.4 
2.8 

3-2 

3-7 


0.07 
0.15 
o .  29 
0.44 
0.58 
0.73 
0.87 
1.02 
1. 16 


0.3 
0.6 
0.9 
1 .  2 
1.6 
1.8 
2 . 1 
2.4 


Mixed  Hay, 
I  :  10. o 


2. 1 

4.2 

6.4 

8.5 

10.  6 

12.7 

14.8 

16.9 


.  22 

33 
.44 

•55 
.66 

■77 
.88 
.  10 


cu 


CO 

!0 


Sugar  Beets,  i  :  6.8 


0.3 
0.7 
1 .4 
2  .0 
2.7 


o  .04 
0.08 
0.16 
o.  24 
0.32 
o .  40 

0.48 
0.56 
o.  64 


1.7 


Rutabagas, 
I  :  8.6 


0.3 
0.5 
I  .  I 
1.6 
2.3 
2.9 

3-4 
4.0 
4.6 


0.03 
0.05 
o .  10 
0.15 
o .  20 
0.25 
o .  30 

0.35 
o .  40 


0.4 
0.9 

I  -3 
1-7 
2 .  2 
2.6 


Buttermilk,    i:  1.7 


o .  2 

0.5 
I  .  o 

1  -5 

2  .0 

2.5 
3.0 

3.5 
4.0 


o.  10 
0.19 

0.38 
0.57 
o  .  76 

0.95 
1. 14 

r  -33 
r  .52 


0.3 
0.6 
I  .0 
1  -3 
1.6 

1  .9 

2  .  2 
2.6 


Timothy  Hay, 
I  :  16.5 


2.  2 
4-3 
6.5 
8.7 
10 . 9 
13.0 

15-2 

17.4 
21.7 


0.07 
0.14 
0.21 
0.28 
0.35 
o  .42 

0.49 
0.56 
o .  70 


8.1 

9.2 

II. 6 


t-jT)  oj 


Carrots,  i  :  9.6 


0.3 
0-5 
I  .  I 
1.6 
2.3 
2.9 
3-4 
4.0 
4.6 


0.03 
0.0s 
o .  10 
0.15 
o .  20 
o.  25 

0.30 
0.35 

o .  40 


Turnips,  i  :  7.7 


0.5 
1 .0 
1.4 
1 .9 
2.4 
2.9 
3.3 
3.8 


OS 

0 

2 

05 

0 

4 

10 

0 

8 

^5 

I 

2 

20 

1 

5 

25 

I 

9 

30 

2 

3 

35 

2 

7 

40 

3 

I 

Whey,  I  :  8.7 


0 .  2 
0.3 
0.6 
0.9 

1 .  2 
1-5 
1 .9 


2.5 


0 

02 

0 

I 

0 

03 

0 

3 

0 

06 

0 

5 

0 

09 

0 

8 

0 

12 

I 

0 

0 

15 

I 

3 

0 

18 

I 

6 

O . 24        2.1 


Ky.  Blue  Grass 
Hay,  I  :  10.6 


1.9 

3-7 

5.6 

7-4 

9.2 

II .  I 

13-0 

14.8 


0.09 

I . 

0.19 

2  . 

0.28 

3 

0.37 

3 

0.46 

4 

0.  56 

5 

0.  65 

6 

0.74 

7 

0.93 

9 

8 


AGRICULTUKE. 


COMPOSITION   OF   FEEDS — {Continued). 


Pounds  of 
Feed. 


Hays. 


2h 

5 
7i 

lO 

I  2h 

15 

17* 

20 

25 


Dry 

Fodders. 


2h 

5 

7* 
10 

12i 
15 

I7i 

20 

25 


Grains. 


3  ■ 

4  • 

10   , 


Oat  HavT  :  0.0 


2 . 

4- 

6. 

9. 
1 1  . 
i,^  ■ 
16. 


22.8 


0.31 

0  .41 
0.51 
o.  62 
o.  72 

0.82 

1  03 


1  .0 

2  .0 

3-0 

4.0 

S-i 
6.1 
7-1 
8.1 
10.  2 


Red  Clover  Hay, 
I  :  5-9    


2 

I 

0 

18 

4 

2 

0 

36 

6 

4 

0 

53 

8 

■; 

0 

71 

10 

6 

0 

89 

12 

7 

I 

07 

14 

8 

I 

24 

r6 

9 

I 

42 

21 

2 

I 

78 

8.3 
10.5 


Com  Fodder, 
I  •■  14-3 


14 


0.06 

0.13 
o .  19 
0.25 
0.32 
0.38 
0.44 
0.50 
0.63 


0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4-5 
5-4 
6.2 

7-1 
8.9 


Com  Meal, 
1  :  1 1.3 


o .  2 
0.4 
0.9 
1-7 
2.6 
3-4 


0.02 
0.03 
0.06 
0.13 
o.  19 
0.25 
0.32 
0.48 
0.63 


CU 


CO 


Oat  and  Pea  Hay 

I  :  4.1 


4-4 
6.6 
8.9 
1 1  . 1 
13.3 
IS-S 
17.7 

2  2.1 


0.28 
0.56 
0.84 
I  .  12 
I  .40 

1.68 

1 .  96 

2 .  24 
2.80 


Alsike  Clover  Hay, 
I  :  5-5 


2.3 

45 

6.8 

9.0 

11-3 

13-5 

15.8 

18. I 

22 . 6 


o .  42 
0.63 
0.84 
I  -05 
I  .  26 
1-47 
1.68 
2. 10 


2.3 
3-5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
II. 6 


Com  Stover, 
I  :  23-6 


1-5 
30 
4-5 
6.0 

7-S 

9.0 

10.5 

12.0 

15.0 


.04 
.07 


0.25 
0.28 
0.35 


0.8 
1-7 
2.5 
3-3 
41 
5.0 
5.8 
6.6 
8.3 


Com  and  Cob 
Meal,  I  :  13.9 


6.4 

8.5 


o.oi 
0.02 
0.05 
o.  10 
o.  14 
o.  19 
o.  24 
0.36 
0.48 


0.3 
0.7 
1.3 

2.0 

2.7 

3-4 

5-1 
6.7 


4> 

(J 


Hungarian,  i  :  lo.o 


2 . 1 
4.2 
6.3 
8.4 


0.12 

O.  2«, 

0.37 

o   49 

0.62 

0.74 
0.86 
0.98 
1-23 


8.6 

9.8 

12.3 


Oat  Straw, 
I  :  38.3 


2 

3 

0 

03 

I 

2 

4 

6 

0 

06 

2 

3 

6 

8 

0 

09 

3 

5 

9 

I 

0 

12 

4 

6 

II 

4 

0 

15 

■S 

8 

13 

9 

0 

18 

6 

9 

16 

0 

0 

21 

8 

I 

18 

2 

0 

24 

9 

2 

22 

7 

0 

30 

I^ 

5 

Wheat  Straw, 
I  :  93-0 


2.3 

4-5 

6.8 

9.0 

11-3 

13-5 

X5.8 

18. 1 

22.6 


0.01 
0.02 
0.03 
0.04 
0.05 
o  .06 
0.07 
0.08 
o.  10 


0.9 
1 .9 

2.8 

3-7 
4.6 
5.6 
6.5 
7-4 
9-3 


Oats,  I  :  6.2 


2 

0.02 

4 

0.05 

9 

0  .09 

8 

0. 18 

7 

0.28 

6 

0.37 

5 

0.46 

7 

0.  69 

9 

0.  92 

FEEDING    STUFFS. 


C03IP0SITI0N   OF   FEEDS — (Continued). 


Pounds  of 
Feed. 


By- 

products. 


eu 


TO 

o 


Barley,  i  :  8.0 


0 

2 

0 

02 

0 

4 

0 

04 

0 

9 

0 

og 

I 

8 

0 

17 

2 

7 

0 

26 

3 

6 

0 

35 

4 

5 

0 

44 

6 

7 

0 

65 

8 

9 

0 

87 

O  .  2 

0.3 


2.8 

3-5 
5-2 
6.9 


Wheat  Middlings, 
I  :  4.6 


0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.6 
3-5 
4-4 
6.6 
8.8 


0.03 
o  .06 
0.13 
o .  25 

0.38 

0.50 
0.63 
0.94 

1-25 


0.3 
0.6 

I  .  2 

1-7 

2.3 
2.9 
4.4 

5.8 


Rye,  I  :  7.8 


0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3-5 
4.4 
6.6 


0.02 
o  .04 
o  .09 
0.18 
o .  27 

0.36 
o  .46 
0.67 

0.89 


O.  2 

0.3 
0.7 

1-4 
2  . 1 
2.8 


Cottonseed  Hulls, 


o .  2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4-5 
6.7 
8.9 


o.  I 

0 .  2 
0.4 
0.7 

1 .  I 
1-5 
I  .8 
2.7 
3-7 


nil, 


CTi 


CIh 


^  I-  c 
Co 

o 


Barley  Screenings, 
T  :  7.7 


0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.6 
3-5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 


0.02 
o  .04 
o  .09 
0.17 
o.  26 

0.34 
0.43 
0.65 
0.86 


Wheat  Screen- 
ings, 1  :  5.2 


0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3-5 
4-4 
6.6 


.02 

■  05 
.  10 
.  20 
.29 
•39 

■  49 
■74 
.98 


0.5 

1  .0 

1-5 

2  .0 

2.5 
3.8 


Rye  Bran,  1 

:  5-1 

0.  2 

0.03 

0.  2 

0.4 

0  .06 

0.3 

0.9 

0.12 

0.6 

1.8 

0.25 

I  -3 

2.7 

0.37 

I  .9 

3-5 

0.49 

2.5 

4-4 

0.62 

3-1 

6.6 

0.92 

4-7 

8.8 

1.23 

6.3 

Linseed  Meal,  o.p. 
I  :  1.5 


o .  2 

0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4-9 
6.8 
9.0 


0.08 
o.is 
0.31 
o .  62 
o .  92 

I  •  2i 

1.54 
2.31 
3.08 


0.5 


b'O  cd 
en 


Wheat  Bran, 


0.03 
o .  06 
0.12 
o .  24 
0.36 
0.48 

0 .  60 
0.90 

1 .  20 


0.5 

I  .0 

1.4 

1.8 
2.3 
3-4 
4.6 


Red-dog  Flour, 
I  :  3.-?. 


o .  2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.6 
6.8 
9.1 


o  .04 
o  .  09 
0.18 
0.36 

0.53 
0.71 
0.89 
1-34 
1.78 


o .  I 
0.3 
0.6 
I  .  2 
1-7 
2.3 
2.9 

4-4 
5-8 


Cottonseed  Meal, 
I  :  i.o 


0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.8 


o.  10 

0.  20 
o  .40 

0.80 

1 .  20 
1 .  60 

2  .00 

3- 00 
4.00 


0.4 


1.6 


3-0 

4.0 


Linseed  Meal,  n.p. 
I  :  1.3 


0.4 
0.9 


0.08 
0.16 
0.32 
0.6s 
0.97 
1.30 
1 .62 
2.43 
3-24 


0.4 


3-2 

4.2 


10 


AG-RICULTUKE. 


COMPOSITION   OF   FEEDS — {Continued). 


Pounds  of 
Feed. 


By- 

products. 


i 
I 

2 

3 
4 
S 
7i 

lO 


I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
7* 


1 

'S 

I 

2 

3 
4 
5 

7* 
lo 


rC    +J  ^ 

2  «J'^ 

CO 

O 


Flax  Meal,  i  :  1.4 


o.  2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
45 
6.7 
8.9 


0.08 
0.16 
0.32 

0 .  64 
o  .96 
1.28 

1 .  60 

2 .  40 

3-21 


Gluten  Feed, 
Buffalo,  I  :  2.4 


o  .06 
0.12 
o.  23 
0.47 
o .  70 
003 
1.17 

2.33 


0.3 
0.6 
I .  I 

1-7 
2.3 
2.8 
4-3 

5-7 


Atlas  Gluten 
Meal,  I  :  2.6 


0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.8 
3-7 
4.6 
6.9 
9.2 


0  .06 
0.12 
o.  25 

i  0.49 
0.74 
0.98 

1  ■  23 

1.85 

2  .46 


0.3 
0.6 

1-3 

1 .9 

2.6 
3-2 

4-9 

6.5 


Is 


2  <^^ 
cu 


Gluten  MeaKChi.), 
I  :  1.5 


o .  2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.6 
3-5 
4-4 
6.6 


0 

08 

0 

I 

0 

16 

0 

2 

0 

32 

0 

.S 

0 

64 

0 

Q 

0 

q6 

I 

4 

I 

28 

I 

9 

I 

60 

2 

3 

2 

40 

3 

5 

3 

21 

4 

7 

Hominy  Chop, 
I  :  9.2 


2.8 


0.02 
o .  04 
o  .09 

0.17 

o .  26 

0.35 
0.44 

o  .  65 

0.87 


O.  2 
0.4 
0.8 

1.6 
2.4 
3-2 
4.0 
6.0 
8.0 


Malt  Sprouts, 
I  :  2.2 


0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4-5 
6.7 
9.0 


0.05 

0  .09 
0.19 

0.37 
0.56 
0.74 
0.93 

1  .  40 
I  .86 


0.4 


I  .  2 
1.6 


P^ 


cd 


Gluten  Meal, 
Cream,  i  :  1.7 


0 

07 

0 

I 

0 

I.-; 

0 

2 

0 

30 

0 

5 

0 
0 

59 
89 

I 
I 

0 
5 

I 

19 

2 

I 

I 

49 

2 

6 

2 

23 

3 

9 

2 

97 

5 

I 

0.4 
0.9 

1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4-5 
6.7 
9.0 


Dried  Brewers' 
Grains,  i  :  3.0 


2.8 


6.9 
9.2 


0.04 
0.08 
0.16 
0.31 
0.47 
0.63 
0.79 
1.18 
1-57 


o.  I 
0.3 
o-S 
0.9 

1-4 
1.9 
2.4 
3-5 
4-7 


Pea  Meal    1:3-2 


0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4-5 
6.7 
9.0 


.04 
.08 

■  17 

■  i3 
■50 
.67 
.84 
.26 
.68 


0 .  I 
0.3 
0.5 

1 .  I 
1.6 
2 . 1 
2.7 
4.0 
5-3 


FEEDIis^Q    STUFFS.  11 

CLASSIFICATION  OF   CATTLE   FOODS.     (Lindsey.) 

A.  Coarse  Feeds  (Roughage). 

I.  Low  in  protein,  high  in  carbohydrates: 

(a)  50-65    per   cent,    digestible:     Hays,    straws,    corn 

fodder,  corn  stover,  and  silage. 

(b)  85-95     P^r     cent,     digestible:     Carrots,    potatoes, 

sugar  beets,  mangels,  turnips. 

II.  Medium  in  protein   and  in  carbohydrates,  55-65   per 

cent,   digestible:    Clovers,  vetches,    pea   and   bean 
fodders  and  brans. 

B.  Concentrated  Feeds  (Concentrates), 

III.  Low   in   protein,    high    in    carbohydrates,    80-90   per 

cent,  digestible:  Wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  Indian 
corn. 

IV.  High  in  protein,  medium  in  carbohydrates,  80-90  per 

cent,  digestible:  Bean  and  pea  meals,  gluten  feeds 
and  meals,  linseed  meals,  cottonseed  meal. 

CLASSIFICATION       OF       CONCENTRATES,       ACCORDING 
TO   PROTEIN   CONTENT: 

(a)  Very  rich  in  protein  (about  80  per  cent.) :  Dried  blood, 
meat  scraps,  cottonseed  meal. 

(b)  Rich  in  protein  (25-40  per  cent.) :  Gluten  meal,  Atlas  meal, 
linseed  meal,  buckwheat  middlings,  soja  beans,  grano-gluten. 

(c)  Fairly  rich  in  protein  (12-25  P^^  cent.)  Malt  sprouts, 
dried  brewers'  grains,  gluten  feed,  cow  pea,  pea  meal,  wheat 
shorts,  rye  shorts,  oat  shorts,  wheat  middlings,  wheat  bran, 
low-grade  flour  (red-dog). 

(d)  Low  in  protein  (below  12  per  cent.):  Wheat,  barley,  oats, 
rye,  corn,  rice  polish,  rice,  hominy  chops,  germ  meal. 


12 


AGRICULTURE. 


FEEDING   STANDARDS    FOR   FARM   ANIMALS. 

(  Wolff- Lehm  ANN.) 
(Per  day  and  per  looo  lbs.  live  weight.) 


o 

—  XI 


1.  Steers  at  rest  in  stall.    . .    . . 

Steers  slightly  worked 

Steers  moderately  worked.. 
Steers  heavily  worked.   . . . . 

2.  Fattening  steers,  ist  period, 

2d       "      . 
"        3d       "      . 


lbs. 
i8 


25 
28 


30 
30 
26 


3.  Milch  cows,  daily  milk  yield,  n  lbs.      25 

16.5     '•    1     ^7 

29 

"     27.6    "         32 


4.  Wool  sheep,  coarser  breeds. 
"         '*        finer  breeds.. . . 


5.  Breeding  ewes,  with  lambs. 


6.  Fattening  sheep,  1st  period. 
2d        "      . 


Horses  lightly  worked 

Horses  moderately  worked. 
Horses  heavily  worked 


8.  Brood  sows,  with  pigs. 


9.  Fattening  swine,  ist  period. 

2d        "      . 

"        3d        "      . 

10.  Growing  cattle: 


Dairy  Breeds, 

Aver,  live  weight 


Age,  Months. 
2-3 
3-6 
6-12 
12-18 
18-24 


per  head. 
154  lbs. 
309    "  • 
507    "  • 
705    '    • 


23 
25 


30 

33 


24 
a6 


36 
32 


23 
24 

27 
26 
26 


Nutritive 
(Digestible) 
Substances. 


O  T3 


lbs. 
0.7 
1.4 
2.0 


2-5 

30 


1.6 

2.0 

2-5 

3-3 
1 .2 

2.9 

3-0 
3-5 

1-5 
2.0 

2.5 
2.5 

4-5 
4.0 

2.7 


■5W' 


lbs. 
8.0 
10. o 

13.0 


15.0 
14.5 
15.0 


10.0 

II. & 
13.0 
13.0 

10.5 
12  .0 


15.0 

15.0 
14-5 

9-5 
II  .0 

13-3 
15-5 


4.0 
3 


lbs. 
o.  1 

0.3 

0-5 
0.8 


0.7 
0.7 


0-3 
0.4 


0.2 
0.3 


0.5 


0-5 
0.6 


0.4 
0.6 


0.4 


25.0  0.7 
24.0  0.5 
18.0    0.4 


13.0 
12.8 
12.5 
12.5 


2.0 
i.o 

0.5 
0.4 

0.3 


1; 

>   . 

■r:  «5 

u    u 

^s 

'^1k 

■-:  J3 

5  3 

Ot/1 

h 

lbs. 

8.9 

12.  I 

14.7 

»7-7 

18.7 

19.2 

19.4 

T2.3 

14.0 

16.7 

18.3 

12.2 

14.2 

19. I 

19.2 

19.4 

12.0 

145 

17-7 

19.0 

31.2 
29.2 


21. C 
18.2 

15-7 
15-3 
14.2 


FEEDING   STUFFS. 


13 


FEEDING   STANDARDS   FOR   FARM  ANI3IALS. 

{Concluded.) 


11.  Growing  cattle: 

Bee/  Breeds. 

Aver,  live  weight 

Age,  Months.  per  head. 

2-3  165  lbs.. . 

3-6  331     "... 

6-12  551    "... 

12-18  750    "  . . . 

18-24  937    "••• 

12.  Growing  sheep: 

Wool  Breeds. 

4-6  62  lbs. . . 

6-8  75    "... 

8-11  84    "... 

11-15  90    "  ... 

15-20  99    "  .. . 

13.  Growing  sheep: 

Mutton  Breeds. 

4-6  66  lbs. . . 

6-8  84    "  ..., 

8-11  lOI    "  .... 

II-I5  121      "... 

15-20  154     "  .... 

14.  Growing  swine: 

Breeding  A  nimals. 

2-3  44  lbs. . . 

3-5  99    ".•• 

5-6  121    "... 

6-8  176    "  ... 

8-12  265    "  . . . , 

15.  Growing  fat  pigs: 

2-3  44  lbs..., 

3-5  110   "  .... 

5-6  143    "•••• 

6-8  198    ".... 

8-12  287    "  


1 

Nutritive 

Total  Dry 
Substance. 

(Digestible) 
Substances. 

>   . 

So 

Ot/2 

_d 

c 

20. 
u 

lbs. 

u 

lbs. 

0 

u 

W 

> 
3 

2; 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

23 

4-2 

13.0 

2.0 

20.0 

1:4.2 

24 

3-5 

12  8 

1-5 

19.9 

1:4.7 

25 

2-5 

13.2 

0.7 

17.4 

1:6.0 

24 

20 

■2.5 

0-5 

15-7 

1:6.8 

24 

1.8 

[2.0 

0.4 

14.8 

1:7.2 

25 
25 

3-4 
2.8 

15-4 
13.8 

0.7 
0.6 

20.5 
18.0 

1:5-0 
1:5-4 

23 

2. 1 

"•5 

0-5 

14.8 

1:6.0 

22 

1.8 

T1.2 

0.4 

14.0 

1:7.0 

22 

1-5 

10.8 

0-3 

13.0 

1:7.7 

26 

4.4 

15-5 

0.9 

22.1 

1:4.0 

26 

3-5 

15.0 

0.7 

20.2 

1:4.8 

24 

3-0 

14-3 

0.5 

18-5 

1:5-2 

23 

2.2 

12.6 

0  5 

16.0 

1:6.3 

22 

2.0 

12.0 

0.4 

150 

1:6.5 

44 

7.6 

28.0 

I.O 

38.0 

1:4.0 

35 

50 

23.1 

0.8 

30.0 

1:5.0 

32 

3  7 

21.3 

0.4 

26.0 

1:6.0 

28 

2.8 

18.7 

0.3 

22 .2 

1:7.0 

25 

2.1 

15-3 

0.2 

17.9 

1:7-5 

1 
44 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

38.0 

1:4.0 

35 

5-0 

23.1 

0.8 

30.0 

1:5.0 

33 

4-3 

22.3 

O.t) 

28.0 

1:5-5 

30 

3.b 

20.5 

0.4 

25   1 

1:6.0 

"  1 

3-0 

18.3 

0.3 

22.0 

1 :6.4 

14 


AGRICULTURE. 
RATIONS   FOR   DAIRY   COH  S. 


Woods  &  Phelps 

Woll 

Wolff'sGcrman  Stand'. 
Wolff- Lehmann...       ., 


Org'nic 
Matter. 

Protein 

lbs. 
25.0 
24.5 
24.0 

lbs. 

2-5 

2.2 
2.5 

Digestible. 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


lbs. 
12.5 
13 -3 
•5 


Fat. 


lbs. 

.65 

•7 

•4 


Total. 


(See  page  12) 


lbs. 

15-65 

16.2 

15-4 


Nut. 
Ratio 


1:5-6 
1:6.9 
1:5-4 


CALCULATION    OF    COMPONENTS   OF   FEED 
RATIONS. 

Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  ai  our  disposal  the  following 
common  feeding  stuffs  :  Fodder  corn,  clover  hay,  and  wheat 
bran,  and  that  we  want  to  know  how  much  is  required  to  keep  a 
milch  cow  of  1000  lbs.  live  weight  in  good  condition  and  to 
secure  a  maximum  yield  of  milk.  We  will  feed  15  lbs.  of 
corn  fodder,  5  lbs.  of  clover  hay,  and  10  lbs.  of  wheat  bran. 
According  to  the  table  these  quantities  contain  the  following 
number  of  pounds  of  digestible  matter  : 


Dry 

Matter. 

Digestible. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates and 
Fat. 

15  lbs.  of  corn  tedder 

Lbs. 
8.7 

4-2 

8.8 

Lbs. 
-38 
.36 

1 .  20 

Lbs. 
5-4 

5  lbs.  clover  hay 

to  lbs.  wheat  bran 

4.6 

Total 

21.7 

1 .94 

This  ration  falls  somewhat  short  of  the  feeding  standard  in 
both  total  dry  matter  and  digestible  substances.  To  bring  it 
nearer  to  the  standard,  we  add  a  couple  of  pounds  of  some  con- 
centrated feed.  In  selecting  the  feeds  and  deciding  the  quan- 
tities to  be  given  in  each  case,  the  market  prices  of  the  feeds 
must  be  considered.  We  will  suppose  that  a  supply  of  corn  meal 
is  available  in  this  case,  and  will  add  two  pounds  of  this  feed  to 
the  above  ration. 


i 


FEEDING   STUFFS. 


15 


Dry 

Matter. 

Digestible. 

Crude 
Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates. 

Nutritive 
Ratio. 

Ration  as  above 

Lbs. 

21  .7 

1-7 

Lbs. 

1.94 

.13 

Lbs. 

12 . 1 

1.4 

2  lbs.  of  com  meal 

Total 

23-4 

24-5 
24.0 

2.07 
2.  2 

2.5 

13-5 

13-3 
12.5 

I  :  6.5 

1:6.9 

1:5-4 

Proposed  American  feeding 
ration  for.  milch  cows.  .  . 

Wolff 's  feeding  standard  for 
milch  cows 

The  ration  now  corresponds  fairly  well  with  the  proposed 
American  feeding  ration;  there  is  a  small  deficit  of  dry  matter 
and  of  digestible  protein;  but  there  is  no  necessity  of  trying  to 
follow  any  standard  ration  blindly,  as  they  are  only  intended 
to  be  approximate  gauges  which  the  farmer  may  use  in  estimat- 
ing the  quantities  of  nutrients  required  by  farm  animals  in  order 
to  do  their  best,  cost  and  product  both  being  considered. 
Cows,  like  all  farm  animals,  vary  greatly  in  their  productive 
capacity,  as  well  as  in  their  food  requirements,  and  their  capacity 
to  make  economical  use  of  their  feed;  hence  feeding  standards 
can  only  be  applied  to  average  conditions,  a  point  which  should 
always  be  kept  in  mind  in  using  them. 

In  constructing  rations  according  to  the  above  feeding 
standards,  several  points  must  be  considered  besides  the  chemi- 
cal composition  and  the  digestibility  of  the  feeding  stuflfs;  the 
standards  cannot  be  followed  directly  without  regard  to  bulk 
and  other  properties  of  the  fodder;  the  ration  must  not  be  too 
bulky,  and  still  must  contain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  rough- 
age to  keep  up  the  rumination  of  the  animals,  in  case  of  cow 
and  sheep,  and  to  secure  a  healthy  condition  of  the  animals 
generally.  The  local  market  prices  of  cattle  foods  are  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  determining  which  feeds  to  buy;  the 
conditions  in  the  different  sections  of  our  continent  differ  so 
greatly  in  this  respect  that  no  generalizations  can  be  made. 
Generally  speaking,  nitrogenous  concentrated  feeds  are  the 
cheapest  feeds  in  the  South  and  the  East,  and  flour-mill,  brewery, 
and  starch-factory-refuse  feeds  the  cheapest  in  the  Northwest 


IG  AGRICULTURE. 

PRACTICAL   RATIONS   FOR   DAIRY  COW  S. 

Fed  by  16  American  Dairymen  Producing  325  lbs.  of 
Butter  or  more  per  Cow  per  Year.* 

1.  Colorado. — 30  lbs.  silage,  10  lbs.  alfalfa  hay,  10  lbs.  clover 
hay,  5  lbs.  wheat  bran,  2  lbs.  corn  meal. 

2.  Connecticut. — 35  lbs.  corn  silage,  10  lbs.  hay,  3  lbs.  wheat 
bran,  3  lbs.  corn  and  cob  meal,  2  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal,  2  lbs 
Chicago  gluten  meal. 

3.  Illinois. — 7^  lbs.  clover  hay,  7^  lbs.  timothy  hay,  12  jbs. 
corn  and  cob-meal,  8  lbs.  bran,  \\  lbs.  linseed  meal,  i^  lbs. 
cotton-seed  meal. 

4.  N^eru  Jersey. — 24  lbs.  corn  silage,  8  lbs.  corn  meal,  2  lbs. 
wheat  bran,  4  lbs.  oats,  2  lbs.  oil  meal. 

5.  New  York. — 20  lbs.  hay,  2  lbs.  wheat  bran,  2  lbs.  cotton- 
seed meal,  2  lbs.  hominy  meal. 

6.  New  York. — 12  lbs.  timothy  hay,  i  lb.  wheat  bran,  i  lb. 
middlings,  2  lbs.  corn  meal,  2  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal,  40  lbs. 
skim-milk. 

7.  Ne7o  York. — 42  lbs.  corn  silage,  2\  lbs.  clover  hay,  2\  lbs. 
timothy  hay,  8  lbs.  corn  and  cob  meal,  14  lbs.  dried  brewers' 
grains. 

8.  N^orth  Carolina.— 2)0  lbs.  corn  silage,  8  lbs.  fodder  corn, 
3  lbs.  corn  meal,  3  lbs.  wheat  bran,  i  lb.  cotton-seed  meal. 

9.  Pennsylvania. — 24  lbs.  corn  fodder,  5.1  lb.  wheat  bran, 
5.1  lbs.  corn  meal,  3  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal,  2  lbs.  oil  meal. 

10.  Pennsylvania. — 10  lbs.  corn  fodder,  6  lbs.  hay,  3I  lbs. 
wheat  bran,  i\  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal,  i^  lbs.  oil  meal,  2\  lbs 
corn  meal. 

11.  Texas. — 30  lbs.  corn  silage,  13^  lbs.  sorghum  hay,  1.3  lbs. 
corn  meal,  2.6  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal,  2.2  lbs.  cotton-seed,  1.3  lbs. 
wheat  bran. 

12.  Vermont. — 30  lbs.  corn  silage,  10  lbs.  hay,  4.2  lbs.  corn 
meal,  4.2  lbs.  wheat  bran,  .8  lb.  linseed  meal. 

13.  West  Virginia. — 48  lbs.  corn  silage,  'i\  lbs.  corn  and  cob 
meal,  2\  lbs.  ground  wheat,  2\  lbs.  oats,  2\  lbs.  barley  meal. 


*  See  Woll,  "  One  Hundred  American  Rations  for  Dairy  Cows,"  Bul- 
letin No.  38,  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


FEbDl^sG    STUFFS. 


17 


14.  IViscansin. — 26  lbs.  corn  silage,  10  lbs.  clover  hay,  5  lbs. 
tiniC'ihy  hay,  8  lbs,  wheat  middlings,  i^  lbs.  oil  meal. 

15.  Wisconsin. — 50  lbs,  corn  silage,  5  lbs,  sheaf  oats,  5  lbs. 
corn  fodder,  i  lb.  clover  hay,  i  lb,  millet,  2,7  lbs,  cottonseed 
meal,  13  lbs.  oil  meal,  6  lbs,  wheat  bran. 

16.  Canada. — 40  lbs,  corn  silage,  7I  lbs.  clover  hay,  3  lbs. 
straw,  i^  lbs.  oats,  i\  lbs,  barley,  i^  lbs.  pea  meal,  3  lbs.  wheat 
bran,  \  lb,  cotton-seed  meal. 

The  preceding  rations  contain  approximately  the  following 
amounts  of  nutrients,  calculated  for  looo  lbs.  live  weight : 


Orgfanic 

Digestible. 

....                                                            *' 

tritive 

No. 

INU 

Matter. 

Protein. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fat. 

R 

Total. 

atio. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs.             1 

us. 

I 

31.09 

2.70 

15.78 

.80 

19  28         1 

6.5 

2 

25  70 

2.69 

13.96 

•97 

17,62         I 

6.0 

3 

22.09 

2.37 

12.06 

•75 

15 

18         I 

5-8 

4 

19.41 

2  06 

11.71 

.87 

14 

64 

6.5 

S 

26  19 

2.3b 

13-78 

•79 

16 

93           1 

6,6 

6 

25  73 

3-50 

14  05 

1. 12 

18 

67 

4  7 

7 

31.30 

3-37 

16.31 

1-31 

20 

99           I 

5-7 

8 

20.38 

1  79 

11.98 

.80 

14 

57           I 

7-7 

9 

26.52 

2-53 

1574 

.90 

19 

17           I 

7.0 

10 

20,05 

2.31 

II  .00 

.72 

14 

03           1 

5-4 

II 

26.58 

221 

12.31 

1.30 

15 

82           I 

6.9 

12 

24.23 

1.86 

14.03 

•75 

16 

64           t 

8.4 

>3 

22.37 

1-54 

1415 

,72 

16 

41           I 

I0.2 

»4 

31.00 

3.01 

16.02 

,87 

19 

90           I 

6,0 

»5 

23.79 

2-73 

12.46 

99 

16 

i3          I 

5-4 

16 

22.96 

2.08 

12.17 

•71 

14 

96.       I 

6,6 

18 


AGRICULTURE. 


AVERAGE     WEIGHTS      OF      CONCENTRATED      FEEDING 

STUFFS. 


Feeding  Stuff. 


Barley  meal 

Barley,  whole 

Beet  pulp,  dried 

Brewers'  grains,  dried 

Com  and  cob  meal 

Corn  and  oat  feed 

Com  bran 

Com  meal 

Com,  whcle 

Cottonseed"  meal 

Cottonseed 

Distillers'  grains,  dried 

Germ-<»il  meal 

Gluten  feed 

Gluten  meal 

Hominy  meal 

Kafir  meal 

Linseed  meal,  new  process 

"       old  process 

Malt  sprouts 

Alixed  feed  (bran  and  middlings) 

Mr>lasses  beet  pulp 

Oat  feed 

Oat  middlings 

Oats,  whole 

Rye  bran 

Rye  feed  (r\-e  bran  and  rye  middlings) 

Rye  meal 

Rye.  whrlc 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  feed,  mixed 

Wheat,  ground 

Wheat  middlings  ("  flour") 

('  standard'  ) 

Wheat,  whole 


One  Quart 

One  Pound 

Weighs. 

Measures. 

Pounds. 

Quarts. 

I .  I 

•  9 

1-5 

•  7 

•  55 

1.8 

.6 

1-7 

1.4 

•  7 

.7 

1.4 

•  5 

2.0 

1-5 

•  7 

1-7 

.6 

1.5 

•  7 

I  .o 

I  .o 

•  5--7 

2.0-1.4 

1.4 

•7 

I  -3 

.8 

I  -7 

.6 

I .  I 

•  9 

1.6 

.6  , 

•  0 

I .  I 

I  .  r 

•9 

.6 

1-7 

.6 

1.7 

•  75 

1.3 

.8 

1.3 

1.5 

•7 

I  .o 

I  .o 

.6 

I    7 

1-3 

.8 

1-5 

.7 

I  -7 

.6 

•  5 

2.0 

.6 

1-7 

I  .7 

.6 

I  .  2 

.8 

.8 

1.3 

T  .  0 

•5 

FOOD   KEQUIKE^IENTS  OF  FARM  ANIMALS. 

It  is  generally  assumed  in  comparing  the  food  require- 
ments of  the  different  classes  of  farm  animals  that  one  cow 
at  pasture  will  eat  about  seven  tenths  as  much  dailv 
as  a  full-grown  horse,  or  as  much  as  two  yearling  colts, 
heifers,  or  young  bulls,  or  as  three  to  five  calves,  or  four 
colts  taken  fr(jm  the  mare,  or  ten  to  twelve  sheep,  or  as 
twelve  to  twenty  three-months-old  lambs,  or  as  four  to  five 
swine.  It  may  be  figured  that  the  quantity  of  pasture  grass 
eaten  by  a  cow  per  day,  which  of  course  will  vary  with  the 
season  and  the  condition  of  the  pasture,  will  equal  25-30  Ibs- 
of  good  meadow  hay  or  40  lbs.  hay  of  inferior  quality. 


TEEDIISTG    STUFFS. 


19 


COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  CATTLE  FOODS. 

Comparing  concentrated  foods  with  coarse  feeds,  one 
pound  of  the  former  may  be  considered  a  food  unit;  the 
quantity  of  grass  eaten  by  one  cow  at  pasture  during  one 
day  is  assumed  equivalent  to  12  to  13  food  units  during 
the  early  part  of  the  summer,  and  to  4  food  units  in  the 
iate  fall,  10  units  being  considered  an  average  figure. 

The  following  quantities  of  different  feeding  stuffs  are 
considered  approximately  equivalent,  as  determined  by 
European,  largely  Danish,  feeding  experience  (Schroll): 

I  lb.  concentrated  feed  (cereals,  mill  refuse-feeds,  oil  meals, 
etc.)  =  2I  to  3  lbs.  of  good  meadow  hay  =  4  lbs.  of  poorer 
quality  hay  =  10  lbs.  rutabagas  =  \2\  lbs.  turnips  =  6  lbs. 
potatoes  =  10  lbs.  green  fodder  =  6  lbs.  buttermilk  =  6  lbs. 
skim-milk  =  12  lbs.  whey  =  i  lb.  new  milk.  (See  table  on 
p.  19a,  also  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.,  Circ.  37.) 

CALCULATED    VALUE    OF    FRUITS    COMPARED     WITH 
HAY,   GRAINS,   ETC.      (Jaffa  and  Anderson.) 


100  lbs.  of  each  of 
the  fruits  named 
below  is  equiva- 
lent to  the 
amounts  of  the 
materials  given 
in  the  columns  to 
the  right. 


Fresh   Fruits. 

Apples 

Oranges 

Pears 

Plums 

Prunes 

Apricots 

Nectarines 

Figs 

Grapes 

Watermelons 

Nutmeg  melons.  . 

Dried  Fruits. 

Pinines 

Apricots 

Peaches 

Figs 

Raisins 


r.bs. 
34 
33 
40 
50 
46 
40 
43 
50 
50 
22 
19 


17s 

194 

I  90 
!86 
216 


ffi 


Lbs. 

20 

IQ 
23, 
30 
27 
23 
26 
30 

33 
13 


104 
115 
113 
1 10 
128 


Lbs. 
24 
23 
30 
36 

Z3, 
29 
30 
37 
37 
16 

13 


125 

138 
13s 
132 
153 


Lbs, 
15 
14 
17 
22 
20 
17 
19 
23 
23 
10 
8 


78 
86 
85 
83 
97 


Lbs. 

17 
16 
20 
25 
23 
20 
22 
26 
26 


97 
95 
9  5 

108 


Lbs, 
16 
15 
19 
24 
22 

19 

21 

25 
25 


84 

93 
91 
89 

103 


c 

1 

cd 

-0 

m 

S  03 

f 

+-> 
a! 

15  .s 

A 

x,-^ 

0 

^ 

^ 

^ 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

18 

16 

13 

17 

15 

12 

20 

19 

15 

26 

24 

20 

24 

22 

18 

20 

19 

IS 

23 

21 

17 

27 

25 

20 

27 

25 

20 

1  2 

II 

8 

10 

9 

7 

92 

84 

67 

102 

93 

74 

100 

91 

72 

97 

89 

71 

1 1 1 

lOi 

82 

O  1) 


Lbs. 

9 

8 

II 

14 

13 

1 1 

12 

14 

14 

6 

5 


48 
53 
51 
SO 
59 


19rt 


AGRICULTURE. 


AMOUNTS     OF     DIFFERENT     FEEDS     REQUIRED     TO 
EQUAL    ONE    FEED    UNIT.     (Wis.  Exp.  Sta.,   Circ.  37.) 


Feed. 


Feed  Required  to 
Equal  I  Unit. 


Concentrates: 

Corn,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  hominy  feed,  dried 
brewers'  grains,  wheat  middlings,  oat  shorts,  peas 
Unicorn  Dairy  Ration,  molasses  beet  pulp 

Cotton  seed  meal 

Oil  meal,  Ajax  Flakes  (dried  distillers'  grains),  glu- 
ten feed,  soy  beans 

Wheat  bran,  oats,  dried  beet  pulp,  barley  feed, 
malt  sprouts.  International  Sugar  Feed,  Quaker 
or  Sugarota  Molasses  or  Dairy  Feed,  Sucrene 
Dairy  Feed,  Badger  Dairy  Feed,  Schumacher 
Stock  Feed,  molasses  grains 

Alfalfa  meal,  Victor  feed,  June  Pasture,  alfalfa 
molasses  feeds 


Aver- 
age, 
Lbs. 


Hay  and  Straw: 

Alfalfa  hay,  clover  hay 

Mixed  hay,  oat  hay,  oat  and  pea  hay,  barley  and 

pea  hay,  red  top  hay 

Timothy  hay,  prairie  hay,  sorghum  hay 

Corn  stover,  stalks  or  fodder,  marsh  hay,  cut  straw 

Soiling  Crops,  Silage,  and  Other  Succulent  Feeds 

Green  alfalfa 

Green  corn,  sorghum,  clover,  peas  and  oats,  cannery 

refuse 

Alfalfa  silage 

Corn  silage,  pea  vine  silage 

Wet  brewers'  grains 

Potatoes,  skim  milk,  butter  milk 

Sugar  beets 

Carrots 

Rutabagas 

Field  beets,  green  rape 

Sugar  beet  leaves  and  tops,  whey 

Turnips,  mangels,  fresh  beet  pulp 


1 .0 
0.8 


0.9 


2.0 

2.5 
3.0 
4.0 


7.0 


Range, 
Lbs. 


1.5-3.0 

2 . 0-3 . o 
2.5-40 
3.5-6.0 


6 . 0-8 . o 


8 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
5 

7 

o-io.o 

6 
/I 

5 

0-7.0 

6 

7 

8 

9 

TO 

8 

O-IO.O 

T? 

12 

10 

0-15.0 

The  value  of  pasture,  is  generally  placed  at  8  to  12   units  per  day.  on 
the  average,  varying  with  kind  and  condition. 


FEEDING  STUFFS. 


195 


POUNDS     OF    DRY    MATTER,     DIGESTIBLE     MATTER, 
AND    DIGESTIBLE    PROTEIN    TO    BE    FURNISHED 
IN  RATIONS  FOR  DAIRY   COWS.      (Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui. 
200.) 


Live 
Weight, 
Lbs. 


Dry 
Cows. 


Production  of  Butter  Fat  per  Day,  Pounds. 


Less 

than 
0.5  lb. 


0.5- 


•  75 


0.75- 
1 .0 


I  .0- 

1.25 


1.25- 
1.5 


1-5- 
1.75 


1.75-2 


POUNDS    DRY    MATTER    TO    BE    FURNISHED    IN    RATIONS. 


800. 

10. 0 

13.7 

16.2 

18.6 

21  .  I 

23.  5 

26.0 

28.4 

900 

II. 3 

15-0 

17.5 

19.9 

22.4 

24.8 

27.3 

29-7 

1000 

12. 5 

16.2 

18.7 

21  .  I 

23-6 

26.0 

28.5 

30.9 

IIOO 

13.8 

17.5 

20.0 

22.4 

24.9 

27.3 

29.8 

32.2 

1200 

15.0 

18.7 

21.2 

23.6 

26. 1 

28.5 

31-0 

33.4 

1300 

16.3 

20.0 

22.5 

24.9 

27.4 

J9.8 

32.3 

34-7 

1400 

17.5 

21 . 2 

23.7 

26.1 

28.6 

31.0 

33-5 

35-9 

1500 

18.8 

22.5 

25-0 

27.4 

29.9 

32.8 

34-7 

37.2 

POUNDS    DIGESTIBLE    PROTEIN    TO    B ::    FURNISHED    IN    RATIONS. 


800 

.56 

1.04 

1.35 

1.66 

1-97 

2.  29 

2.60 

2.91 

900 

.63 

I  .  II 

1.42 

1.73 

2.04 

2.36 

2.67 

2.98 

1000 

.70 

I.  18 

1.49 

1.80 

2.  II 

2.43 

2.74 

3.05 

IIOO 

.77 

1-25 

1.56 

1.87 

2.18 

2.50 

2.81 

3-12 

1200 

.84 

1.32 

1.63 

1.94 

2.25 

2.57 

2.88 

3.19 

1300 

.91 

1.39 

1.70 

2.01 

2.32 

2.64 

2.95 

3.26 

1400 

.98 

1.46 

1-77 

2.08 

2.39 

2.71 

3.02 

3.33 

1500 

1.05 

1.53 

1.84 

2.15 

2.46 

2.78 

3.09 

3.40 

POUNDS    TOTAL     DIGESTIBLE    M.\TTER    TO    BE    FI  RNISHED    IN    RATIONS. 


800 

900 

1000 

IIOO 

1200 
1300 
1400 
1500 


6.3 
7.1 
7.9 
8.7 

9.5 
10.3 
II  .  I 
II. 9 


9.0 

9.8 

10.6 

II. 4 

12 . 2 
130 
13.8 
14.6 


10.7 

12.5 

14.2 

16.0 

17.7 

ii-S 

13.3 

15.0 

16.8 

18.5 

12.3 

14. 1 

IS. 8 

17.6 

19.3 

13. 1 

14.9 

16.6 

18.4 

20.  I 

13.9 

15-7 

17.4 

19.2 

20.9 

14-7 

16.5 

18.2 

20.0 

21.7 

15-5 

17.3 

19.0 

20.8 

22.5 

16.3 

18. 1 

19.8 

21 .6 

23.3 

19.5 
20.3 

21. I 
21  .9 

22.  7 
23.5 
243 
25.1 


10 


AGRICULTURE. 


PRICES   OF  CEREALS   PER   BUSHEL    AND   PER 

TON. 


Name. 

4->            "^ 

0 

u 

S.1 

0   0» 

H5 

Weig 
per 
Bui 

Ji3 

■cm 

Price 
per 

(2000 

lbs. 

$ 

$ 

Wheat . 

60 

33-3 

.40 

13-33 

4^ 

15.00 

SO 

16.67 

60 

20.00 

75 

25.00 

I 

00 

33-33 

Corn... 

56 

35-7 

30 
35 
40 

45 
50 

10.71 
12.50 

14.28  ! 

16.06 

17-85 

Name. 


Oats  . . 


Rye  ... 
Barley. 


y  aa3 


lbs. 


56 


62.5 


35-7 
41.7 


O.J2 


-25 
-30 

•35 
•  50 
.40 
.50 
.40 
•50 
.60 


c 

^ 

c 

IM 

H 

£ 

«    V- 

0 

cj  a. 

0 

u^O 

i, 

~^ 

$ 

11 

25 

12 

50 

I.S 

63 

18 

75 

21 

90 

3« 

25 

»4 

28 

17 

8s 

16 

68 

20 

8? 

25 

02 

VALUATION    OF    FEEDING   STUFFS. 

The  commercial  value  of  protein,  fat,  and  carbohydrates 
in  concentrated  feeding  stuffs  has  been  calculated  from  the 
average  composition  and  market  price  of  common  feeding 
stuffs  as  follows: 


,— Cost  of  one  pound  ci—^ 
Protein.         Fat.     Carbohydrates. 


In  Germany. .  .(1890)  3: 
'    Connecticut  (1888)  1.6  cts.  4.2  cts 

(1890)1.4 
'    Delaware. .  .(1889)1.23 
'    Wisconsin  .  .(1891)  1.5 
'    Indiana  .  .  .  .(1891)  i.o 

*  New  Jersey. (1891)    .91 

*  Minnesota.  .(1893)3.1 

*  Vermont ..  ..(1895)2.02 


2: 

I 

(Konig,  Wolff.) 

4.2  cts 

.96  cts. 

(Jenkins.) 

2.9 

1.4 

i< 

4.45 

•  52 

(Penny.) 

3.6 

•5 

(Woll.) 

2.75 

.63 

(Huston.) 

5.91 

1. 12 

(Voorhees.) 

3-1 

.24 

(Hays.) 

-  .19 

.91 

(Hills  ft  al.) 

FARM    AXIMALS.  2i 


II.  FARM    ANIMALS. 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF   BREEDS   OF   LIA'E 
STOCK. 

By  the  late  Prof.  J.  A.  Craig,  formerly  of  Iowa  Agricultural  College. 

I.  Ught  Horses. 

The  Thorotighbred, — Leading  characteristics:  running  speed 
(Salvator,  1:35^,  holds  the  world's  mile  record),  quality,  stam- 
ina, and  ambition.  Common  colors :  brown,  bay,  chestnut. 
Distinctive  features  :  refined  appearance,  lengthy  neck,  deep 
chest,  long  body,  straight  croup,  long  thighs  and  pasterns, 
dense  bone,  firm  muscle,  active  temperament,  rangy  type 
standing  16  hands.  Most  common  defects  :  light  bodies, 
lengthy  pasterns,  long  legs,  irritable  temperament.  Bred 
principally  for  racing,  which  has  given  them  endurance  and 
spirit.  They  are  suited  for  mating  with  mares  weighing  11  to 
12  cwt.,  with  the  object  of  producing  strong  drivers  or  stylish 
carriage  and  saddle  horses. 

The  American  Trotter. — Chief  characteristics  :  speed  at  the 
trotting  gait.  World's  record  for  one  mile  against  time  is  that 
of  Ali.x,  2:o3f.  The  type  of  the  leading  campaigners  is  that 
towards  which  the  trotter  is  tending;  it  is  that  of  a  horse  re- 
quired to  have  the  endurance,  ambition,  and  conformation  to 
maintain  trotting  speed.  Most  general  features:  intelligent 
heads,  light  necks,  low  deep  chests,  oblique  shoulders,  long 
forearm,  short  cannons,  round  body  rising  slightly  over  loin, 
long  croup  and  thighs,  low  hockti.  Most  common  defects: 
undersize,  deficiency  in  style,  finish,  and  substance.  Sphere: 
coach  or  carriage  horses,  roadsters,  and  fotters. 


22  AGK1<;UL'IURE. 

Cleveland  Bay.  —  Uniform  in  color,  being  bay  with  black 
points.  They  stand  at  least  16  hands  and  are  horses  of  larger 
size  and  more  power  than  those  of  most  other  breeds  of  light 
horses.  Rough  joints,  coarse  bone,  and  deficiency  in  actior  are 
their  most  common  defects.  Their  size,  power,  and  evenness 
of  disposition  adapt  them  for  general  work  on  light  farms, 
but  owing  to  the  defects  mentioned  they  are  not  as  popular  for 
breeding  road  and  carriage  horses  as  those  of  other  breeds. 

French  Coach. — Smooth,  symmetrical,  and  generally  of  fine 
quality  ;  very  graceful  in  movement,  with  high  knee-action  and 
good  back-action.  Heads  intelligent  looking;  necks  graceful 
bodies  snugly  ribbed,  and  quarters  muscular.  As  a  rule,  they 
are  striking  in  appearance,  being  upstanding  and  high-headed. 
Common  colors :  bay,  brown,  and  black.  Best  suited  for 
breeding  coach-horses  with  moderately  fast  and  graceful  action. 
Defects  :  coarseness  and  lack  of  prepotency  in  the  stallions  due 
to  their  mixed  breeding. 

Hackney.  —  The  typical  hackney  is  a  horse  of  extreme 
smoothness,  with  gratefully  curved  outlines.  The  head  is 
light,  neck  muscular  and  curved,  but  free  from  heaviness  ; 
shoulders  smooth  and  laid  well  back;  body  circular,  compact, 
short  ;  hips  smooth  ;  quarters  plump  with  muscle  ;  legs  short, 
with  tendons  clearly  defined.  Their  action  is  noted  for  its  grace- 
fulness and  stylishness,  being  very  high  m  the  forelegs,  and  the 
hock  movement  is  regular.  Common  colors  :  bay  and  brown. 
They  are  usually  about  15.3  hands.  Best  suited  for  production 
of  high-stepping  cab  and  coach  horses  for  city  driving. 

II.  Heavy  Horses. 

Clydesdale. — Usual  colors:  bay,  brown,  black,  or  chestnut  with 
white  markings.  The  head  is  intelligent  in  features,  but  some- 
times out  of  proportion  with  the  other  parts.  Shoulder  excep- 
tionally good  ;  being  sloping,  it  gives  them  a  free,  easy,  and 
long  stride  in  the  walk  or  trot  ;  arm  well-muscled,  and  legs 
clean  and  flat,  with  the  fine  and  long  feather  springing  from 
the  edge  ;  pasterns  sloping,  easing  the  feet  from  concussion; 


FARM    ANIMALS.  23 

feet  large  and  durable.  The  croup  is  muscular  and  the  quarters 
especially  heavily-muscled.  Their  combination  of  weight, 
quality,  and  action  is  exceptional  in  draught-horses. 

Shire. — The  best  type  is  low,  broad,  and  stout.  They  are 
heavily  built,  muscular,  with  heavy  bone  and  slow  movement. 
The  shoulder  is  usually  too  upright,  making  the  action  too 
short  and  stilted.  The  body  is  of  large  girth,  deep  and 
strongly  coupled,  with  broad,  short  back  and  heavily-muscled 
quarters.  Deficiencies  :  lack  of  quality,  sluggish  temperament, 
and  lim.ited  action.  In  general  they  are  heavier  than  the 
Clydesdale,  though  there  is  little  difference  between  representa- 
tive animals.  The  best  type  is  suitable  for  breeding  the 
heaviest  class  of  draught-horses  adapted  to  slow  work  demand- 
ing strength  and  heavy  weight. 

Percheroii.  —  Types  :  the  original  gray  in  color,  and  the 
modern  of  black  color.  Most  peculiar  characteristics  of  the 
former  were  their  action,  style,  endurance,  and  strength.  They 
had  intelligent  heads,  prominent  chests,  round  bodies,  large 
bone,  inclined  to  roundness.  The  modern  type  is  shorter- 
legged,  more  compact  and  stouter,  but  lackin.^  the  size  of  the 
original.  The  Percheron's  excellencies  are  seen  in  their  active 
temperament,  intelligent  heads,  crested  neck,  deep  body,  and 
wide  croup.  Their  deficiencies  appear  in  defective  legs,  being 
light  or  round,  straight  pasterns,  feet  narrow  at  the  hoof,  heads 
and  quarters  lacking  muscle.  Best  type  adapted  for  breeding 
energetic,  quick-gaited,  strong  horses  suited  for  draught  work 
of  light  nature. 

Suffolk. — Color  uniform,  being  some  shade  of  chestnut. 
They  are  low-set,  short- legged,  deep-bodied,  muscular  horses, 
with  clean  bone  and  durable  feet ;  decile,  easy  keepers,  and 
steady  when  working.  General  deficiency:  a  lack  of  weight  due 
to  their  smaller  size  in  comparison  with  other  draught-horses. 
Suited  for  general  farm  labor  ;  they  are  not  the  highest-priced 
horses  on  the  market  owing  to  the  demand  for  heavier  weight*- 


24  AGRICULTURE. 

III.  Beef  Cattle.* 

Short-7iorns. — The  three  family  types  are:  Bates,  Booth,  and 
Cruikshank.  Bates,  noted  for  style,  fine  heads,  clean  necks, 
straight  level  backs,  light  bone,  and  combination  of  milk  and 
beefing  qualities.  Booi/is  are  especially  excellent  in  girth,  wicle 
backs,  lengthy  quarters,  deep  flesh,  and  beefing  qualities,  though 
lacking  in  finish  and  style.  Cruikshanks,  noted  for  scale  ;  low, 
broad,  deep  forms,  heavy  flesh,  and  mossy  coats.  The  short- 
horn breed  is  specially  noted  for  beef  form,  early  maturity,  and 
thrift  under  a  variety  of  conditions.  Their  weakness  in  con- 
stitution and  sterility  is  traceable  to  in-and-in  breeding  and 
artificial  treatment.  Their  chief  utility  is  to  give  beef  form, 
quality,  and  rapid  fattening  tendencies  to  grades  for  stall  feed- 
ing. Some  families  possess  unequalled  combination  of  beefing 
and  milking  qualities. 

Aberdeen  Angus.  —  Characteristic  color,  black.  Head, 
hornless  ;  neck  free  from  loose  skin,  exceptionally  good 
shoulder-vein  ;  shoulder  oblique,  fitting  close  to  body  ;  ribs 
deep,  very  circular  ;  hips  moderately  far  apart,  smoothly 
curved  ;  rump  long,  level,  smooth  ;  thighs  muscular,  twist  low 
and  full,  quarters  long  and  rounded.  Type  :  cylindrical,  dis- 
tinguished for  smoothness,  symmetry  and  quality  ;  bone  light, 
hide  mellow,  and  coated  with  fine  black  hair.  They  are  pre- 
potent and  prolific.  Chief  utility,  production  of  beef  of  high 
quality. 

Hereford. — Most  popular  color,  dark  claret  or  cherry,  with 
white  face,  belly,  switch,  and  small  strip  of  white  on  neck  and 
over  shoulder.  Type:  low-set  and  broad;  heavy  in  fore- 
quarters,  with  low  heads  ;  full,  deep  chest  ;  hanging  dewlap, 
level  lack,  wide  thick  loin,  full  quarters  and  thin  thighs. 
Worst  deficiencies,  looseness  in  build  and  rough,  coarse  bone. 
They  are  strong-constitutioned,  active  rangers,  prepotent  and 
long-lived.  Being  active,  hardy,  and  good  feeders  they  make 
good  grazing  cattle,  and  on  that  account  have  been  popular  on 
ranches. 

Galloway.  —  Color   black,    no    white   admissible,   except   on 

*  For  description  of  breeds  of  dairy  cattle,  see  Part  II,  Dairying. 


FAKM    riJNliUAL5  25 

udder  or  below  underline.     Type:  thick,  close  to  ground,  and 

symmetrical  ;  hair  long,  wavy,  and  thick  ;  head  large,  horn- 
less, with  no  scurs  ;  neck  strong,  giving  a  burly  appearance 
to  forequarters  ;  shoulders  snug,  legs  short  and  heavy,  barrel 
round,  tight-ribbed  ;  quarter  long  and  smooth  ;  flesh  even  over 
all  parts;  hardiness  and  strength  of  constitution,  strong  feat- 
ures. Require  more  time  to  mature  and  yield  larger  percentage 
of  offal  than  most  other  breeds.  They  are  liked  as  ranch 
cattle,  as  they  are  hardy,  hornless,  and  yield  excellent  beef  and 
robes. 

IV.  Fine-woolecl  Sheep. 

Merino. — The  two  types  include  those  wrinkled  and  those 
smooth  in  body.  They  are  chiefly  noted  for  the  heavy  weights 
of  fine  w^ool  that  they  shear.  The  fleece  is  dense,  even,  ex- 
tending over  all  regions.  The  wool  is  bright,  soft,  fine,  lustrous, 
and  pure.  They  are  hardy  and  strong  in  constitution,  of  a  quiet 
disposition,  and  do  well  in  large  flocks. 

\.  Mutton  Sheep. 

Southdown. — Symmetrical,  compact,  close  to  the  ground,  and 
of  fine  quality  ;  head  medium  size,  hornless  ;  forehead  and 
face  covered  with  wool,  ears  small,  face  brown  or  gray  tint, 
neck  short,  breast  broad,  back  and  loin  wide  and  straight,  body 
deep,  hips  wide,  twist  full,  fleece  dense,  and  medium  in  length 
and  fineness.  The  mutton  is  of  high  quality,  and  lambs  mature 
early.  They  represent  an  exceptional  combination  of  wool  and 
mutton  of  fine  quality. 

Shropshire. — Face  and  legs  dark  broAvn  in  color.  They  are 
symmetrical  and  stylish.  Rams  are  required  to  weigh  225  lbs. 
in  full  flesh,  and  ewes  175  lbs.  Head  short,  covered  with  wool, 
hornless;  neck  well  attached,  full;  body  circular,  round  ribbed; 
quarters  lengthy,  inclined  to  narrowness  and  slackness.  The 
fleece  dense,  fibre  strong,  about  three  and  one  half  inches  in 
length.  The  ewes  are  prolific  and  kind  nurses.  They  combine 
quality  and  quantity  of  wool  and  mutton  in  a  high  degree,  and 
are  adapted  to  conditions  of  general  farming  and  rolling  land. 

Hampshire. — Color  of  face  dark  brown  or  black;  head  large, 
nose   prominent,  neck   regular,  taper  from   head  to  shoulder; 


26  AGRICULTURE. 

strong-boned  ana  lengthy.  Especially  noted  for  early  develop- 
ment of  lambs.  They  are  vigorous  and  prepotent.  The  wool 
is  short,  dense,  strong,  and  slightly  coarse. 

Suffolk. — Faces  and  legs  deep  black  color.  They  are  large 
sheep  when  mature  ;  lengthy  and  straight  in  form.  Noted 
chiefly  for  prolificness  and  good  milking  and  nursing  qualities. 
A  large  percentage  of  lambs  are  reared  in  flocks  of  this  breed; 
wool  medium  in  quality  and  length. 

Oxford. — Face  either  brown  or  gray,  and  lengthy.  When 
mature  they  are  the  heaviest  of  the  Down  breeds,  being  larger  in 
size  and  heavier  in  bone.  Their  fleece  is  also  heavier  and  the 
fibre  longer,  coarser,  and  more  open  than  most  cithers.  Squarer 
in  form  than  the  Shropshires,  and  not  so  closely  covered  with 
wool.   Adapted  to  strong  land;  respond  readily  to  high  feeding. 

Leicester. — Face  bare  and  pure  white,  body  square,  straight, 
forequarters  exceptionally  full,  hindquarters  rounded  slightly. 
Offal  is  light,  bone  fine,  but  fat  too  plentiful.  The  Border 
type  is  stronger  boned,  heavier,  and  more  vigorous  than  the 
English.  The  Leicester  has  been  extensively  used  for  crossing 
on  grades.  Wool  lustrous,  five  or  six  inches  long,  soft,  but 
too  frequently  open  and  absent  on  the  belly. 

Cotswold. — Face  white  or  slightly  mixed  with  gray.  Form 
large,  square,  upstanding,  and  stylish,  A  tuft  of  wool  grows 
from  forehead;  fleece  open,  long,  and  heavily  yielding.  Body 
long,  level,  and  wide.  The  gray-faced  strain  is  considered 
hardier  than  the  white-faced.  The  popularity  of  the  breed  lies 
in  the  large  yield  of  wool  and  of  mutton,  though  the  quality  of 
both  is  deficient. 

Lincoln. — The  largest  of  the  long-vvooled  breeds.  The  wool 
is  long  and  coarse,  and  especially  lustrous.  Square  in  form 
and,  when  mature,  very  heav}'.     The  mutton  lacks  quality. 

Cheviot. — Face  bare,  white,  hornless;  wool  fine,  and  the 
fleece  dense  and  even.  Mutton  agreeably  flavored  and  fine- 
grained. They  are  hardy,  active,  prolific,  and  the  lambs  come 
active.  They  clip  about  four  pounds  of  fine  wool.  Adapted  to 
rough  and  high  pasturage. 

Dorset. — Face  white  ;  rams  and  ewes  horned.  Type  :  long, 
round-bodied,  and  compactly  built.  Wool  medium  in  length, 
fineness,  and  weight;  average  clip  6  pounds.     Chief  character- 


FARM   ANIMALS.  27 

istics:  prolificness,  hardiness,  and  breeding  early,  so  as  to  drop 
lambs  in  winter. 

Highland. — Rams  and  ewes  horned,  face  and  legs  black  and 
white.  Low  and  blocky  in  type  ;  fleece  long,  coarse.  Their 
mutton  has  a  superior  flavor.  Mountain  breed  hardy,  active, 
and  very  strong  of  constitution. 

VI.  Swine. 

Berks/rre. — Color  black,  white  on  face,  feet,  tip  of  tail.  Face 
short,  dished;  ears  sharp-pointed,  erect;  jaws  full,  back  broad, 
straight,  full  over  shoulder  ;  loin  thick,  level  ;  hams  excep- 
tionally full,  legs  short,  strong,  and  straight.  Sows  prolific, 
good  nurses.     Active  and  vigorous  in  temperament. 

Poland-China. — Color  dark,  spotted,  or  black;  head  small, 
slightly  dished;  ears  drooping,  girth  full,  ribs  well  sprung,  deep; 
nindquarters  lengthy,  though  inclined  to  be  drooping.  They 
I'atten  readily,  reach  heavy  weights,  and  are  quiet-dispositioned. 

Yorkshire. — White  in  color;  separated  into  large,  middle,  and 
small  varieties.  The  first-mentioned,  are  strong-boned,  long- 
bodied,  and  deep-sided,  and  have  mixed  meat;  middle  or  im- 
proved type,  lighter  in  weight  and  bone,  with  smaller  quantity 
of  offal  ;  small  variety,  quick  in  maturing  and  compact  in 
form. 

Chester-  White. — White  in  color,  strong-boned,  vigorous,  and 
attain  to  very  heavy  weights,  though  slow  in  maturing.  Sows 
of  good  disposition  and  breeding  qualities. 

Duroc- Jerseys. — Deep,  cherry  red  in  color,  large  size,  good 
breeders,  and  liked  in  Southern  countries  because  of  ability  to 
ivitlistand  heat. 

Victoria. — White  in  color  with  occasional  black  spots  on  skin; 
head  small,  face  slightly  dished  ;  skin  free  from  scurf  ;  flesh 
of  good  quality  and  evenly  laid  over  body.  Yearling  boars 
jhould  weigh  not  less  than  300  lbs. 

TaJ7i7vorth. — Red  or  dark  brown  color  ;  snout  very  long, 
body  narrow,  exceptionally  deep  and  long  in  sides.  Their 
form  and  the  mixture  of  fat  and  lean  in  their  flesh  make  them 
a  special  bacon  hog. 

Essex. — Color  black;  type  :  small,  compact,  early  manuring, 
and  yielding  a  large  percentage  of  edible  meat. 


28  AGRICULTUKE. 


MARKET   CLASSES    OF   FAR3I   AN13IALS. 
A. — Horses. 

Drapers. — A  typical  draft  horse,  so  considered  in  the  market, 
should  stand  i6  hands  or  over;  light  draft  horses  range  in  height 
from  15.3  to  16. 1  hands.  Drafters  should  weigh  1600  lbs.  and 
over  in  fair  condition.  Heavy  weight  in  addition  to  desirable 
conformation,   soundness,  and  action  enhances  value. 

Loggers. — Horses  of  this  class  are  heavy  drafters,  possessed 
of  weight,  great  power,  and  strength  of  bone,  but  blemished 
or  slightly  unsound  so  that  they  cannot  be  sold  to  advantage 
for  use  in  the  cities.  Largely  bought  by  lumbermen  for  use  in 
the  woods. 

Farm  chunks. — These  arc  usually  of  mixed  draft  blood,  stand 
15  hands  or  over  and  weigh  1 100-1500  lbs. 

General-purpose  Horses. — These  animals  are  not  recognized 
as  a  standard  market  class,  but  form  a  large  proportion  of  the 
entire  number  of  horses  marketed.  They  usually  are  serviceably 
sound  and  often  of  fair  to  good  quality,  but  they  lack  the  char- 
acteristics fitting  a  horse  for  a  distinct  m.arket  class. 

Expressers. — This  class  comprises  active,  light  draft  horses 
that  are  expected  to  do  most  of  their  work  at  a  trot.  The 
typical  expresser  stands  15.2  to  16  hands,  and  weighs  1350  to 
1500  lbs.  or  over,  according  to  the  class  of  work  to  be  done. 
They  are  commonly  considered  "draft  horses  with  coach-horse 
fmish." 

Bussers. — Horses  of  this  class  stand  15. i  to  15.3  hands  and 
weigh  1 200-1400  lbs.  Their  chief  work  is  done  at  a  trotting  gait, 
hence  they  must  be  active,  energetic,  straight,  and  somewhat 
stylish  in  carriage  and  gait.  Many  go  abroad  to  serve  as 
'  trammers." 

Artillery  Horses. — In  this  class  geldings  are  required.  They 
should  be  uniform,  of  a  hardy  color,  from  15 J  to  16  hands 
high,  quick  and  strong  in  action,  w^ell-bred,  of  a  kind  disposi- 
tion, square  trotters,  w^ell  broken  to  harness,  gentle  under  saddle, 
with  easy  mouths  and  gait.  They  should  weigh  1 100-1250  lbs. 
and  be  from  5  to  8  years  old. 


FARM   ANIMALS.  29 

Drivers. — The  typical  roadster  should  stand  15. i  to  15  3 
hands  high  and  weigh  950  to  1150  lbs.  His  purpose  is  to  draw 
a  light  buggy  on  the  road  at  a  fairly  rapid  rate  of  speed  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time.  He  should  be  graceful  in  form  and 
action  sprightly,  pleasing,  straight,  and  smooth  in  all  gaits,  his 
disposition  good,  and  his  legs  and  feet  sound. 

Standard  Bred. — This  class  includes  trotters  and  pacers  eligible 
to  record  in  the  trotting  register  and  possessed  of  notable  speed, 
and  breed  prepotency  in  that  direction. 

Coachers. — A  typical  coacher  stands  15.2  to  16  hands  and 
weighs  1 100  to  1250  lbs.  He  should  have  high  knee  action  and 
corresponding  high  hock  action  that  comes  from  breeding  rather 
than  artificial  methods  of  development.  He  must  move  fairly 
fast  with  much  gracefulness  of  carriage,  possess  fine  quality, 
be  beautifully  molded  in  all  of  his  curves,  and  carry  his  head  and 
tail  high.  WTiile  heavier,  smoother,  and  more  compact  than  the 
roadster,  he  must  be  showy  and  stylish  to  carry  fine  harness 
and  draw  handsome  equipages. 

Wagon  Horses. — These  are  used  for  parcel-delivery  service 
by  large  department  stores,  etc. ;  they  are  big  overgrown  coachers, 
stand  1 6. 1  hands  and  weigh  1250  lbs. 

Cohs. — A  typical  cob  stands  about  15. i,  weighs  1000  to  1050 
lbs.,  is  more  compact  and  blocky  than  the  coacher,  yet  must  have 
style  and  beauty  in  a  marked  degree.  His  action  must  be 
extremely  high  and  "trappy." 

Saddlers. — These  horses  vary  considerably  in  type,  size,  and 
weight,  but  are,  as  a  rule,  15. i  to  15.3  hands  high  and  weigh 
1000  to  1150  lbs.  They  should  have  great  style  and  quality, 
smooth  conformation,  natural  and  thoroughly  trained  saddle 
gaits,  intelligent,  clean-cut  countenances,  sloping  pasterns  and 
shoulders,  moderately  high  and  narrow  withers,  short  strong- 
coupled  backs,  strong  and  muscular  thighs,  and  well-carried 
heads  and  tails.  "Walk,  trot,  and  canter"  saddlers  have  become 
popular  of  recent  years  and  sell  at  high  prices.  (Sec  Alexander, 
Bull.  No.  127,  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station;  also  Obrecht, 
Bull.  No.  122.  Illinois  Exp.  Station.) 


30  AGRICULTURE. 

B. — Cattle. 

General  Classes. 

1.  Beej  Cattle. — This  class  includes  all  grades  of  fat  steers 
and  heifers;  also  everything  from  common  to  prime  and  from 
light  to  heavy.  It  is  finished  condition  that  brings  animals  into 
this  class. 

2.  Butcher  Stock. — This  class  includes  animals  that  have  not 
fattened  well;  also  animals  that  have  not  been  fed  long  enough 
to  become  proj)erly  fattened.  It  seldom  includes  steers  of 
really  good  quality,  as  such  will  usually  be  sold  as  feeders.  The 
bulk  of  butcher  stock  is  made  up  of  cows  and  heifers. 

3.  Cutters  and  Canners. — In  this  class  are  included  old  thin 
cows  and  very  thin  bulls,  steers,  and  heifers.  The  cutters  must 
carry  sufiicient  flesh  to  pennit  of  the  loin  or  rib  or  both  being 
used  for  cutting  on  the  block.  Those  animals  which  are  so  thin 
that  no  part  of  the  carcass  can  be  used  for  block  purposes  con- 
stitute the  canners. 

^.  Stackers  and  Feeders. — This  class  includer  calves,  yearlings, 
two-year-olds,  and  older  cattle.  Cattle  18  months  old  or  older, 
which  are  ready  for  immediate  use  in  the  feed  lot,  are  called 
feeders.     Those  which  are  younger  are  referred  to  as  stockers. 

5.  Veal  Calves. — This  includes  all  calves  which  are  sold  for 
immediate  slaughter. 

Special  Classes. 

In  addition  to  the  preceding  general  classes,  a  number  of 
special  classes  are  generally  recognized  and  require  to  be  named 
and  defined. 

I  Texas  and  Western  Range  Cattle. — A  few  years  ago  the 
typical  Texas  steer  had  very  long  horns  and  legs,  was  thin  and 
narrow  bodied,  and  carried  a  large  deep  brand,  and  most  of 
the  cattle  which  came  from  Texas  were  of  this  description. 
But  this  type  is  rapidly  dii^appearing.  Animals  of  the  best  beef 
breeds  have  been  imported  into  the  State  and  used  for  breeding 
purposes,  especially  for  crossing  with  the  native  stock,  so  that 
new  many  of  the  Texas  cattle  compare  favorably  with  those 
Lorn  other  sections  of  the  country.  There  is,  however,  a  wide 
range  beiween  the  best  r.r.d  the  poorest. 


FARM   AKIMALS.  31 

The  Western  range  cattle  are  classed  with  the  Texas  rattle, 
because  fonnerly  they  were  made  up  largely  of  Southern  cattle 
which  were  driven  northward  to  winter  on  the  ranges  north  of 
the  quarantine  line.  Now,  however,  a  large  percentage  of  the 
animals  in  this  class  are  bred  on  the  ranges  of  the  West  and 
Northwest.     All  the  cattle  in  this  class  are  branded. 

2.  Distillers. — These  are  cattle  that  have  been  fattened  on 
the  by-products  of  distilleries.  Formerly  only  inferior  grades 
of  cattle  were  purchased  for  feeding  on  distillery  residues,  but 
at  present  many  feeders  of  better  grades  are  used.  When  sent 
to  market  these  cattle  are  preferred  to  many  of  the  same  grade, 
because  they  dress  out  a  higher  percentage  of  beef. 

3.  Bahy  Beef. — This  term  applies  to  choice  or  prime  fat  steers 
between  i  and  2  years  old,  weighing  from  800  to  1000  lbs. 

4.  Export  Cattle. — The  cattle  exported  are  in  the  main  good 
to  choice  steers,  weighing  from  1200  to  1500  lbs.  Comparatively 
lew  prime  beef  steers  are  brought  for  export,  because  of  the 
high  price  they  bring  in  the  home  market. 

5.  Shipping  Steers. — This  term  applies  to  the  animals  pur- 
chased in  the  Western  markets  for  shipment  to  the  large  Eastern 
markets  of  the  United  States.  They  are  mainly  of  medium 
and  good  grades,  and  range  in  Aveight  from  1150  to  1600 
lbs. 

6.  Dressed  Beef  Cattle. — This  class  includes  such  cattle  as  are 
purchased  by  the  large  packing  firms  of  the  Middle  West.  The 
packers  prefer  medium  to  choice  steers,  weighing  from  1200  to 
1400  lbs.,  to  make  up  the  bulk  of  their  purchases,  but  conditions 
of  supply  and  demand  cause  them  to  purchase  animals  of  a  much 
wider  range  in  grade  and  weight,  the  extreme  range  in  weight 
being  from  800  to  1700  lbs. 

7.  Stags. — This  class  includes  such  animals  as  have  reached 
or  at  least  approached  maturity  before  castration  and  hence  have 
the  general  conformation  of  bulls.  Comparatively  few  of  these 
come  to  the  general  markets,  and  they  are  of  a  wide  range  in 
quality,  condition,  and  weight.  A  few  are  good  enough  for 
export,  while  the  poorest  must  be  sold  for  canners.  (See  Mum- 
ford,  Bull.  No.  78,  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  also  Plumb, 
Marketing  Live  Stock,  Farmers'  Bull.  No.  184.) 


33  AGRICULTURE. 

C. — Sheep. 

The  market  classification  of  sheep  varies  considerably  in  the 
different  markets  of  our  country.  Ordinarily  they  are,  however, 
classed  as  follows*  Western  wethers,  ewes,  yearlings,  and  lambs, 
and  native  wethers,  ewes,  and  lambs.  These  terms  are  self- 
explanatory.  Western  sheep  are  from  the  ranges  of  Montana, 
Wyoming,  and  other  States  beyond  the  Mississippi,  and  are 
strongly  impregnated  with  merino  blood.  They  lack  the  middle 
wool  or  mutton  characteristics  of  sheep  from  States  east  of 
the  Mississippi.  Western  sheep  and  lambs  weigh  lighter  and 
dress  out  less  fat  than  I^astern  stock. 

The  various  classes  are  graded  on  a  range  of  quality,  from 
common  to  choice  or  extra  prime.  (See  Plumb,  Farmers'  Bull. 
No.  1S4,  and  Coffee,  Bull.  Xo.  129,  I.l.  Exp.  Station.) 

D. — Swine. 

Prime  Heavy  Hogs. — These  are  prime  heavy  fat-back  hogs, 
weighing  350-500  lbs.,  the  extreme  of  the  fat  or  lard  hog.  Prime 
implies  marked  evidence  of  ripeness  and  maturity. 

Butcher  Hogs  are  principally  barrows;  they  are  used  for  the 
fresh-meat  trade;  about  25  per  cent,  of  the  hogs  coming  to 
Chicago  are  of  this  class;  they  range  in  age,  with  good  care  and 
feeding,  from  about  6  months  for  the  light  butchers  to  one  year 
for  the  heavy  ones.  They  are  subdivided  into  heavy,  280-350 
lbs.;  medium,  220-280  lbs.;  and  light  butchers,  180-220  lbs. 
The  heavy  butchers  include  prime  and  good  grades,  and  the 
two  latter  subclasses,  prime,  good,  and  common  grades. 

Packing  Hogs. — These  are,  as  a  whole,  of  a  poorer  grade  than 
the  butcher  hogs.  They  include  old  brood  sows,  and  all  other 
hogs  that  are  heavy  enough  for  this  class  and  not  good  enough 
for  the  butcher  class,  except  the  poorer  classes,  such  as  roughs, 
boars,  and  coarse  stags.  About  40  per  cent  of  the  hogs  on  the 
Chicago  market  are  of  this  class.  They  range  in  age  upwards 
to  about  9  months  and  weigh  in  the  three  subclasses,  200-280, 
250-300,  and  300-500  lbs.,  each  of  these  being  graded  as  good, 
common,  or  inferior  stock. 

Light  Hogs.  -  -This  class  includes  all  hogs  within  the  weight 
limits  of  125  and  220  lbs.,  except  roughs,  stags,  and  boars,  which 


FARM   AKIMALS.  33 

form  separate  classes.  About  15  per  cent  of  the  hogs  on  the 
Chicago  market  belong  here.  They  range  in  age  from  5  to  8 
months,  and  vary  considerably  in  form,  quality,  a*nd  condition, 
hence  the  subclasses  are  of  more  importance  than  in  the  preced- 
ing  classes. 

Bacon  Hogs  are  used  for  the  production  of  bacon,  which  is 
pork  that  has  been  salted  and  then  smoked.  English  bacon 
hogs  weigh  160-220  lbs.  and  United  States,  155-195  lbs.  The 
latter  are  graded  as  choice,  good,  and  common. 

Light  Mixed  Hogs. — This  is  a  somewhat  miscellaneous  class, 
comprising  about  55  per  cent  of  the  light  hogs  on  the  Chicago 
market.  This  class  is  the  "dumping  ground"  for  the  outcasts 
of  the  two  former  classes  of  hogs.  They  range  in  age  from  5 
to  7  months,  and  weigh  150  to  220  lbs.  They  are  principally 
used  for  the  fresh-meat  trade. 

Light  Light  Hogs. — Hogs  in  this  class  range  in  weight  from 
125  to  150  lbs.,  and  in  age  from  5  to  6  months.  About  25  per 
cent  of  the  light  hogs  on  the  Chicago  market  belongs  to  this 
dass  and  are  used  mainly  for  the  fresh-m^eat  trade.  This  and  the 
preceding  subclass  include  hogs  of  good,  common,  and  inferior 
grades. 

Pigs  range  in  weight  from  60  to  125  lbs.,  and  in  age  from 
3^  to  6  months.  They  are  cnoice,  good,  or  common  pigs  in 
proportion  to  t'.  eir  approach  to  the  ideal  of  a  fat  hog. 

Roughs. — This  class  includes  hogs  of  all  sizes  that  are  coarse, 
rough,  and  lacking  in  condition.  The  pork  from  these  hogs 
is  used  for  the  c  eaper  trade  for  both  packing  and  fres.i-meat 
purposes. 

Stags. — These  are  hogs  that  were  boars  beyond  the  pig  stage 
and  have  been  subsequently  castrated.  They  sell  with  a  dockage 
of  80  lbs.  According  to  ihcir  freedom  from  stagginess  and  their 
fjuality  and  condition,  these  hogs  are  sold  in  the  class  with  the 
\ari()us  grades  of  packing  hogs  or  with  boars. 

Boars. — These  are  always  sold  in  a  class  by  them.sclves,  and 
bring  from  two  to  three  dollars  per  cwt.  less  than  the  best  hogs 
on  the  market  at  the  same  time.  The  ])()rk  from  these  hogs  is 
used  to  sui)])ly  the  cheaper  (lass  of  trade  and  also  for  making 
sausage. 


34  AGRICULTURE. 

Miscellaneous  Classes:  Roasting  Pigs. — Three  to  six  weeks 
old  and  weighing  15  to  30  lbs.  T.  ey  come  to  market  in  small 
numbers  and  only  during  the  holiday  season.  They  are  usually 
of  a  very  uniform  grade  and  command  prices  ranging  from 
those  paid  regular  live  hogs  to  that  paid  for  poultry. 

Feeders. — These  are  hogs  that  are  bought  on  the  market  and 
taken  back  to  the  country  to  be  further  fed.  This  class  is  of 
but  small  importance,  as  this  practice  of  feeding  is  followed 
only  to  a  very  small  extent. 

Governmoits. — These  are  hogs  that  are  not  considered  sound 
in  every  respect  by  the  Government  inspectors,  and  are  retained 
for  further  inspection.  They  are  usually  bought  by  local  dealers 
and  taken  to  one  of  the  smaller  packing  houses,  wheie  they  are 
slaughtered  under  the  supervision  of  an  inspector.  If  their 
flesh  is  found  unfit  for  human  food,  they  are  tanked  and  used  for 
fertilizers. 

Pen  Holders  are  long-legged  hogs  of  poor  form,  coarse  in 
quality,  and  much  lacking  in  condition,  kept  at  the  stock  yards 
simply  for  the  purpose  of  holding  pens  for  commission  men. 

Dead  Hogs. — These  are  hogs  killed  in  transit,  and  are  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  grease,  soap,  and  fertilizers.  If  they 
weigh  100  lbs.  or  over,  they  sell  for  75  cents  per  cwt.;  if  less, 
they  furnish  no  revenue  to  the  producer  or  shipper,  the  cost  of 
handling  them  being  held  ecjual  to  their  value.  (See  Dietrich, 
Bull.  No.  97,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 


FARM   ANIMALS. 


35 


TABLE    FOR    ESTIMATING    LIVE    WEIGHT    OF 
CATTLE.      (Whitcher.) 


Girth  in 

Store  Cattle. 

Medium  Fat. 

Feet  and 

Inches. 

Fair  Shape. 

Good  Shape. 

Fair  Shape. 

Good  Shape. 

Ft.  In. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

5   o 

650 

700 

700 

750 

5   I 

675 

72s 

725 

775 

5    2 

700 

750 

750 

800 

5    3 

725 

775 

775 

82s 

5    4 

750 

800 

800 

850 

5    5 

775 

825 

82s 

875 

5   6 

800 

850 

850 

900 

5    7 

82s 

875 

875 

925 

5   8 

850 

900 

900 

950 

5    9 

875 

925 

925 

975 

5   lo 

900 

950 

950 

1000 

S   II 

92s 

975 

975 

1025 

6   o 

950 

1000 

1000 

1050 

6   I 

1000 

1050 

1050 

1 100 

6     2 

1050 

1 100 

1 100 

1150 

6   3 

1 1 00 

1 150 

1150 

1200 

6   4 

1 150 

I  200 

I  200 

1250 

6   5 

1200 

1250 

1250 

1300 

6   6 

1250 

1300 

1300 

1350 

6   7 

1300 

1350 

1350 

1400 

6   8 

1350 

1400 

1400 

1450 

6   9 

1400 

1450 

1450 

1500 

6   lo 

1450 

1500 

1500 

1550 

6   II 

1500 

1550 

1550 

1600 

7   o 

1550 

1600 

1600 

1650 

7    I 

1600 

1650 

1650 

1700 

7     2 

1650 

1700 

1700 

1750 

7    3 

1700 

1750 

1750 

1800 

7    4 

1750 

1800 

1800 

1850 

7    5 

1800 

1850 

1850 

1900 

7    6 

1850 

1900 

1900 

1950 

36  AGRICULTURE. 

DETERMINATION   OF    THE   AGE    OF    FARM 
ANIMALS    BY    THEIR    TEETH. 

(U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Horse. — The  horse  has  24  temporary  teeth.  The  male 
has  40  permanent  teeth,  the  female  36  or  40.  The  smaller 
number  is  more  usual  in  females,  due  to  the  lack  of  the  tusks. 
The  temporary  teeth  consist  of  12  incisors  and  12  molars; 
the  4  center  front  teeth,  2  above  and  2  below,  arc  called 
pinchers  ;  the  next  4  are  called  intermediate  or  lateral,  and 
the  next  4  corner  teeth.  The  permanent  teeth  consist  of  12 
incisors,  4  tusks,  and  24  molars.  The  dental  star  is  a 
yellowish  ring  appearing  next  the  enamel  on  the  table  or 
crown  of  the  tooth.  The  following  table  shows  approxi- 
mately the  changes  of  the  teeth  with  age  : 

3  to  10  days:  Temporary  pinchers  and  3  molars  cut. 

40  to  60  days  :  Temporary  intermediates  or  laterals  cut. 

6  to  9  months  :   Temporary  corner  teeth  cut. 

19  to  25  months  :  Leveling  of  temporary  corner  teeth. 
i\  to  3  years:  Pinchers  replaced  by  permanent  teeth. 
3^  to  4  years  :   Intermediates  or  laterals  replaced. 

4  to  4^  years  :  Tusks  cut. 

4i  to  5  years  :  Corner  teeth  replaced. 

5  to  6  years  :   Leveling  of  lower  pinchers. 

7  years  :  Leveling  of  permanent  intermediates. 
S  years  :   Dental  star  and  notches  in  pinchers. 

9  years  :   Dental  star  in  intermediates. 

10  years  :   Dental  star  in  corner  teeth. 

Cattle. — Cattle  have  20  temporary  and  32  permanent  teeth. 
The  temporary  are  8  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw  and  12 
molars.  The  permanent  teeth  are  8  incisors  and  24  molars. 
Cattle  have  no  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw.  The  table  for 
cattle  is  as  follows  : 

At  birth  :  Temporary  incisors  appear. 

5  to  6  months  :  Teeth  decayed  on  border. 

6  to  7  months  :  Leveling  of  pinchers. 

12  months  :  Leveling  of  first  intermediates. 

15  months  :  Leveling  of  the  second  intermediates. 

18  months  :   Intermediate  incisors  become  stumps. 


FARM   AI^^IMALS.  37 

2  years  :   Permanent  pinchers  cut. 

2j  to  3  years  :   Permanent  first  intermediates  cut. 
3^  years  :  Second  intermediates  or  laterals  cut. 

4  years  :  Corner  teeth  replaced. 

5  to  6  years  :  Leveling  of  permanent  pinchers. 

7  years  :   Leveling  of  first  intermediates. 

8  years  :  Leveling  of  second  intermediates. 

9  years  :  Leveling  of  corner  teeth. 

10  to  12  years:   Dental  star  in  pinchers  and  intermediates. 
13  years  :  Dental  star  in  corner  teeth. 

Sheep.- — Sheep    have    20    temporary    and    32    permanent 
teeth.      The  table  for  changes  is  as  follows  : 

1  month  :   Milk  incisors  appear. 

3  months  :   Milk  incisors  decayed  on  border. 
15  months  :   Permanent  incisors  cut. 

2  years  :   First  permanent  intermediates  cut. 

33  months  :   Second  permanent  intermediates  cut. 
40  months  :  Corner  teeth  cut. 

Hogs. — Hogs  have  28  temporary  and  44  permanent  teeth. 
The  table  for  changes  is  as  follows  : 

At  birth  :  Temporary  corner  incisors  cut. 

I  to  2  months  :  Temporary  central  incisors  cut. 

3  months  :   Temporary  lateral  incisors  cut. 

9  to  12  months  :   Permanent  corner  incisors  cut. 
12  to  15  months  :   Permanent  central  incisors  cut. 
18  to  20  months  :   Permanent  lateral  incisors  cut. 


AGRICULTURE. 


BODY    TEMPERATURE    OF   FARM    ANIMALS. 

(Dammann.) 


Defj.  F. 

Horse 99.5-101.3 

Cattle 100.4-103.1 

Sheep 101.3-105.8 


Deg.  F. 

Swine loi. 3-104.0 

Dog 99.5-103.1 


The  temperature  is  greater  after  exercise  than  after  rest, 
and  in  the  evening,  as  a  rule,  0.2-1. i*  F.  higher  than  in  the 
morning. 


DURATION    AND    FREQUENCY    OF   HEAT   IN 
FARM    ANIMALS.      (Wolff.) 


Mares 
Cows 
Ewes. 

Sows . 


In  Heat  for 


5-7  days 
2-3      " 
2-3       ' 
2-4     " 


If  not  Impreg- 
nated, Heal  will 
Recur  afier 


3-4  weeks 

17-28  days 
9-12 


After  Coming  In, 

Heat  will 

Recur  after 


5-9    days 
21-28      " 

7    months 
4-5  weeks* 


*  8-9  weeks  at  the  latest. 
PERIOD   OF   INCUBATION   OF   POULTRY. 


Name  of-  Fowl. 

Days. 

Name  of  Fowl. 

Days. 

Common  hen 

21 

25 

28 
28 

25 

Goose 

Partridge 

Duck,  Barbary 

Turkey 

30 

Pheasant        

24 

Duck,  common 

Pea  fowl 

30 
28 

Guinea 

FARM   ANIMALS. 


39 


GESTATTOX    CALENDAR. 

Avoi'ago  Gestation  Period. 

Mares,  481.^  weeks  (340  days,  extremes  307  and  412  days). 
Cows,     40!/^       "       (283      "  "  240     "     311     "     ), 

Ewes,     22  "      (150      "  "  146     "     157     "     ). 

Sows,      t6  "       (112      "  "  109     "     143     "     ). 


Time 

of 

Marcs. 

Serv 

ce. 

340  Days. 

Jan. 

I 

Dec.     6 

" 

6 

"       II 

" 

1 1 

"       16 

" 

16 

"       21 

(I 

21 

"       26 

ti 

26 

"      31 

31 

Jan.      5 

Feb. 

5 

"       10 

" 

10 

"      15 

(( 

15 

20 

" 

20 

::  ^5 

25 

"  30 

Mar. 

2 

Feb.      4 

" 

7 

9 

" 

12 

"       14 

*' 

17 

"       19 

" 

22 

"       24 

«( 

27 

Mar.     I 

April 

I 

6 

" 

6 

"       II 

" 

II 

"       16 

" 

16 

"       21 

" 

21 

"       26 

(1 

26 

"       31 

May 

I 

April    5 

" 

6 

10 

ti 

II 

"       15 

tc 

16 

"      20 

it 

21 

"      25 

4( 

26 

"      30 

31 

May     5 

June 

5 

"       10 

'^ 

10 

"       ^5 

*' 

15 

20 

4i 

20 

'!       "5 

t( 

25 

T                 30 

(i 

30 

June     4 

July 

5 

9 

^' 

10 

U 

" 

15 

"        19 

it 

20 

"       24 

Cows, 
283  Days. 


Oct. 


Nov, 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


15 
20 

25 

30 

4 

9 


14 

"       19 
"       24 

Dec.     4 


9 
14 
19 
24 
29 

3 


13 
18 

23 
28 


7 
12 

17 
22 

27 
4 
9 


14 

"       19 

"       24 

"       29 

April    3 


13 


23 
28 


Ewes, 
150  Days. 


May  30 
June  4 
9 
14 
19 
24 
29 

July     4 
9 

"  14 
"  19 
"      24 

"      29 

Aug.      3 


13 

18 

23 

28 

2 

7 
12 

17 
22 

27 
2 

7 
12 

17 
22 

27 

I 
6 
II 
16 
21 
26 

I 

6 
1 1 
16 


Sept, 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Sows, 
112  Days. 


April  22 

"      27 

May     2 

7 
"       12 

"       ^7 


June 


July 


27 

I 

6 

II 

16 

21 
26 
I 
6 
II 
16 


"      26 

"      31 

Aug.     5 

"       10 

"       15 

"      20 
'*      ^ 

Sept,    4 

9 

"       t4 

"       19 

"       24 
29 
4 
9 

-       19 

"       24 

"       29 

Nov.     3 

8 


Oct. 


40 


AGRICULTURE. 


GESTATION    CALENDAR.— ( C^w/'mw^^.) 


Time 

of 

Mares, 

Cows, 

Ewes, 

Sows, 

Service. 

340  Days. 

283  Days. 

150  Da 

ys. 

112  Days. 

July 

25 

June  29 

May      3 

Dec. 

21 

Nov.   13 

^     »4 

30 

July      4 

8 

t. 

26 

"       18 

Aug. 

4 

9 

"       13 

" 

31 

"      23 

»» 

9 

"       14 

"      18 

Jan. 

5 

"      28 

it 

14 

"       19 

"      23 

" 

10 

Dec.     3 

11 

»9 

"      24 

"      28 

" 

15 

8 

tt 

24 

"      29 

June     2 

" 

20 

"      13 

tt 

29 

Aug.    3 

7 

tt 

25 

•'      18 

Sept. 

3 
8 

8 
13 

"       12 

*'       17 

Feb. 

30 
4 

"      23 
"      28 

it 

13 

"       18 

"       22 

** 

9 

Jan.      2 

it 

18 

"      23 

"       27 

" 

14 

7 

it 

23 

"      28 

July      2 

" 

19 

"       12 

It 

28 

Sept.    2 

7 

24 

"       17 

Oct. 

3 

"         7 

"       12 

Mar. 

I 

"       22 

" 

8 

"       12 

"       17 

*' 

6 

"       27 

" 

13 

"       17 

"       22 

" 

II 

Feb.     I 

it 

18 

"       22 

"       27 

*' 

16 

6 

it 

23 

27 

Aug.     I 

'* 

21 

"      II 

ii 

28 

Oct.      2 

6 

ii 

26 

"      16 

Nov. 

2 

"         7 

"       II 

" 

31 

"      21 

" 

7 

"       12 

"       16 

Apri 

5 

"      26 

" 

12 

"       17 

"       21 

'^ 

10 

Mar.    3 

tt 

17 

"       22 

"       26 

tt 

15 

8 

" 

22 

27 

"      31 

" 

20 

13 

" 

28 

Nov.    I 

Sept.    5 

25 

"      18 

Dec. 

2 

6 

"      10 

" 

30 

"      23 

it 

7 

"       II 

"      15 

May 

5 

"      28 

tt 

12 

"       16 

"      20 

" 

10 

April    2 

" 

17 

"      21 

"      25 

" 

15 

7 

it 

■ii 

"      26 

"      30 

" 

20 

12 

it 

27 

Dec.     I 

Oct.      5 

" 

25 

''          17 

ii 

31 

5 

9 

29 

21 

Directions. — Find  the  date  of  breeding  in  the  first  column,  and  fol- 
low the  horizontal  line  in  w-hich  it  appears  until  the  date  in  the  proper 
column  (Mares,  Cows,  etc.)  is  reached.  If  bred,  e.g.,  July  26,  add  one 
day  to  the  required  date;  if  July  27  or  28,  add  2  or  3  days,  as  the  case 
may  be. 


FARM   ANIMALS.  41 

FEEDING    AND    GENERAL    CARE   OF  POULTRY. 

By  Prof.  Wm.  P.  Wheeler,  of  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Experiment  Station. 

Of  the  kinds  of  land  birds  and  of  water  fowls  under  do- 
mestication the  common  "  barnyard  "  fowls,  of  one  general 
type,  but  of  countless  individual  variations,  and  their 
pure-bred  varieties,  are  those  usually  thought  of  when  the 
subject  of  poultry  is  mentioned,  and  these  are  the  fowls  of 
most  general  practical  interest.  It  is  remarkable  that  the 
common  fowl,  although  so  widely  bred,  and  for  so  long,  in 
Europe  and  America  has  no  distinctive  English  name. 

Ducks,  turkeys,  and  geese  constitute  greater  or  smaller 
portions  of  the  market  poultry  according  to  the  particular 
locality  and  season,  but  the  common  fowl,  besides  produc- 
ing most  of  the  table  poultry,  is  almost  alone  called  upon 
for  the  egg  supply. 

The  relative  prices  of  eggs  and  market  poultry,  the 
proximity  of  markets,  as  well  as  the  prices  of  foods,  deter- 
mine the  relative  profit  in  keeping  larger  or  smaller  breeds, 
even  with  eggs  as  the  special  object.  The  meat  value  of 
every  fowl  is  of  consideration  sooner  or  later,  and  while 
the  smaller  hens  will  produce  eggs  cheaper,  the  greater 
net  piofit  from  hatching  to  market  per  hen  may  be  with 
the  larger  breed. 

Most  of  the  pure-bred  varieties  have  their  character- 
istics fairly  established,  so  that  it  is  better  business  policy 
to  employ  them  rather  than  the  uncertain  mongrels,  which, 
besides  their  unknown  capabilities,  are  not  less  likely  to 
suffer  from  long  and  careless  inbreeding.  The  fancier  who 
is  fitted  by  judgment  and  experience  to  inbreed  his  stock 
closely  will  know  how  far  he  can  go  with  safety;  but  one 
who  finds  it  necessary  to  inquire  about  the  advisability  of 
inbreeding  had  better  not  attempt  anv. 

Among  the  breeds  that  lay  white-shelled  eggs.  Ham- 
burgs,  when  of  vigorous  ancestry,  probably  are  the  most 
prolific.  They  certainly  are  exceptional  layers,  although 
the  size  of  the  egg  is  small.  The  Hamburg  varieties  pos- 
sess in  unusual  degree  pure-bred  characteristics.  Occa- 
sional complaints  have  been  made  in  recent  years  concern- 
ing their  stamina. 


42  AGRICULTURE. 

For  egg  production  the  Leghorns  are  typical  fowls,  and  where 
white-shelled  eggs  are  wanted,  the  Leghorn  varieties  are  more 
widely  kept  than  any  others. 

The  Minorcas,  other  members  of  the  Mediterranean  class, 
excel  the  Leghorns  in  size  of  eggs,  but  do  not  equal  them  in 
number. 

Some  strains  of  several  newer  breeds  are  not  far  from  the 
Leghorn  in  prolificacy. 

Of  the  French  breeds  the  Houdan  is  most  widely  bred  in  this 
country,  and,  for  such  an  excellent  table  fowl,  is  an  exceptional 
layer  of  large  white  eggs. 

The  Polish,  often  good  layers,  have  sometimes  suffered  in 
vigor  because  of  their  beauty,  which  admirers  hesitate  to  risk 
marring  by  introduction  of  distant  blood. 

Of  the  Asiatics,  which  lay  brown-shelled  eggs,  the  Langshari 
is  high  in  favor  with  practical  poultrymen.  The  Brahma,  thf 
largest  of  the  pure  breeds,  also  ranks  high  and  lays  large  eggs 
Those  strains,  however,  bred  for  early  laying  are  usually  much 
inferior  in  size  to  the  standard  birds.  The  Cochin  varieties 
arc  more  particularly  the  pride  of  the  fancier  than  of  the  farmer 

Of  the  American  breeds  the  Plymouth  Rock  is  undoubtedly 
the  most  popular.  Its  type  of  plumage  possessses  an  unusual 
strength,  even  in  blood  much  diluted,  and  faint  reflections  oi 
the  blue  barring  are  seen  in  very  distant  relatives  of  the  pure 
breed.  The  perfect  markings  of  the  showroom  bird  are,  how- 
ever, quickly  lost.  The  American  breeds  lay  brown-shelled 
eggs.  Different  flocks  vary  as  much  as  the  breeds  or  varietie 
in  productiveness. 

Many  other  breeds  and  varieties  recognized  by  the  American 
Poultry  Association  are  of  considerable  economic  value,  but 
are  less  commonly  kept. 

In  feeding  most  farm  animals  the  usual  purpose  is  only  to 
secure  meat,  wool,  milk,  or  work,  and  not  always  is  consideration 
necessarily  given  to  the  breeding  condition  and  the  breeding 
season.  When  poultry  is  kept  for  other  than  fancy  purposes, 
the  life  of  the  individual  fowl  is  so  short  that  there  is  not  only 
an  annual  necessity  of  growing  young  birds  with  several  more 
or  less  complete  sets  of  plumage,  but  egg  production  virtually 


FARM    ANIMALS.  43 

implies  continual  reproduction,  for  the  ultimate  constituents  of 
the  egg  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  amount  obtained  from  the 
air,  all  that  are  combined  in  the  living  chick. 

The  body  of  a  Leghorn  pullet,  about  nine  months  old,  in 
active  laying,  contains  about  56  per  cent  of  water,  21  per  cent 
of  different  nitrogenous  constituents,  18  per  cent  of  fat,  3  per 
-^ent  of  ash  or  mineral  matter,  and  2  per  cent  of  other  substances. 
Leghorn  hens  almost  two  years  old  and  laying  showed  an  average 
composition  of  55.7  per  cent  water,  21.6  per  cent  nitrogenous 
matter,  17.0  per  cent  fat,  3.8  per  cent  ash  constituents,  and  1.7 
per  cent  other  substances.  There  was  found  in  the  body  of 
a  mature  capon  about  41.6  per  cent  of  water,  19.4  per  cent 
nitrogenous  matter,  33  9  per  cent  fat,  3.7  per  cent  ash,  and  1.4 
per  cent  other  substances. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  problem  of  poultry  feeding 
Is  much  more  complex  than  that  of  feeding  most  other  farm  stock, 
fewer  carefully  collected  data  are  available  in  formulating  feed- 
ing standards  for  poultry  than  for  cattle.  The  following  rations 
for  laying  hens  are,  however,  near  the  average  of  those  that  have 
given  best  results.  They  are  stated  at  the  rate  per  1000  lbs. 
live  weight,  to  compare  with  the  standards  which  have  been 
used  in  feeding  other  animals.. 

One  thousand  pounds  live  weight  of  laying  hens,  of  about 
three  pounds  average  weight,  require  from  65  to  100  pounds  of 
total  food,  less  bulky  than  that  for  the  cow,  or  55  pounds  or 
more  of  water-free  food  per  day,  containing  about  10  pounds 
digestible  protein,  35  pounds  digestible  nitrogen-free  extract 
and  fiber,  and  4  pounds  of  fat.  From  this  ration  the  he:.s  would 
y)roduce  generally  from  15  to  30  pounds  of  eggs  containing  from 
5  to  10  lbs.  dry  matter,  one  pound  of  eggs  being  produced  from 
about  3  lbs.  water-free  food,  one  pound  of  dry  matter  of  eggs 
for  each  9  lbs.  water-free  food. 

For  one  thousand  pounds  live  weight  of  he  s  of  about  six 
pounds  average  weight,  there  should  be  fed  from  50  to  80  lbs. 
of  food  per  day,  containing  about  40  pounds  of  water-free  food. 
There  should  be  in  this  about  6  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  23 
pounds  of  digestible  nitrogen-free  extract  and  fiber,  and  2  pounds 
of  digestible  fat. 


44  AGRICULTURE. 

The  amount  of  food  required  per  day  per  hen  varies  according 
to  the  size  and  somewhat  with  the  season.  A  smaller  hen  will 
eat  more  in  proportion  to  live  weight  than  a  larger  one.  The 
difference  in  amount  of  food  consumed  by  larger  and  smaller 
hens  is  less  when  laying  than  at  other  times  when  enough  for 
maintenance  only  need  be  eaten. 

A  Coc'  in  or  Brahma  hen  when  laying  requires  from  4^  to 
8  ounces  of  food  per  day,  of  which  3!  ounces  or  more  is  dry 
matter,  A  hen  of  Leghorn  size  when  laying  reciuires  from  3I 
to  6  ounces  of  total  food,  or  3  ounces  of  water-free  food  per  day. 

A  much  larger  amount  of  food  in  proportion  to  the  live  weight 
is  required  by  the  chicks  than  by  the  older  fowls.  The  amount 
of  water-free  food  required  for  every  one  hundred  pounds  live 
weight  fed  is  10.6  lbs.  at  about  one  pound  average  weight;  at 
two  pounds  7.5  lbs.;  at  three  pounds  6.4  lbs.;  at  four  pounds 
5.5  lbs.;  at  five  pounds  5.3  lbs.;  at  six  pounds  4.9  lbs.;  at  seven 
pounds  4.7  lbs.;  at  eight  pounds  4  lbs.;  at  nine  pounds  3.3  lbs.; 
at  ten  pounds  average  live  weight  3.2  lbs.  The  amounts  of 
fresh  food  equivalent  to  these  weights  would  be  correspondingly 
greater.  These  are  the  amounts  taken  by  growing  fowls  which 
nonnally  attain  to  the  higher  weights  given,  and  which  are  still 
immature  and  growing  rapidly  when  at  five  and  six  pounds 
average   weight. 

For  young  chicks  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration  fed  can  be 
somewhat  narrower  than  those  given  for  laying  hens,  and  for 
fattening  the  ration  can  have  a  very  much  wider  ratio,  although 
only  for  short  periods. 

For  one  hundred  hens  about  16  quarts  of  clean  water  per  day 
is  required,  especially  in  dry  hot  weather.  In  each  dozen  eggs 
there  is  about  a  pint  of  water. 

A  variety  of  food  is  essential. 

Young  hens,  especially  of  the  better  laying  breeds,  when  in  full 
laying,  can  be  freely  fed  all  they  will  readily  eat,  but  older  hens 
and  the  young  ones  when  not  laying  should  be  fed  only  enough  to 
keep  them  eager  for  food.  Salt  should  be  fed  mixed  with  the 
food,  but  not  large  coarse  crystals.  One  ounce  of  salt  per  day 
for  one  hundred  hens  is  a  good  proportion. 

Animal  food  and  green  or  succulent  vegetable  food,  as  well 


FARM   ANIMALS.  45 

as  grain,  should  always  be  fed  to  hens  that  are  confined.  It 
is  very  important  that  ducks  should  have  these  foods,  especially 
growing  ducklings. 

Some  form  of  grit  should  be  liberally  supplied. 

A  largely  grain  ration  will  not  contain  the  lime  required  by 
laying  hens,  and  oyster-shells  or  some  other  form  of  carbonate 
of  lime  will  supply  this  deficiency. 

A  grass  run  is  better  than  any  substitute  in  summer,  but  no 
run  should  contain  hens  in  such  a  number  as  to  kill  the  grass. 

Common  fowls,  especially  laying  hens,  must  be  kept  in  moder- 
ately small  flocks.  Where  large  numbers  are  kept,  they  should 
be  divided  in  small  lots  in  separate  pens  and  yards.  Ten  to 
twenty  in  a  pen  give  better  results  than  larger  numbers,  although 
flocks  twice  as  large  can  be  profitably  managed  by  experienced 
poultrymen.  The  laying  hens  should  be  kept  separated  from 
those  not  laying. 

Hens  will  not  always  moult  early  enough  to  resume  laying 
before  midwinter.  Chicks  should  be  hatched  in  March  and 
April  if  eggs  are  to  be  obtained  from  the  pullets  in  November, 
Asiatics,  to  begin  laying  in  the  fall,  should  be  hatched  in  February 
and  March. 

The  best  results  in  every  respect  cannot  be  secured  where  the 
average  space  of  open  run  available  per  hen  is  much  less  than 
IOC  square  feet.  The  average  floor-space  per  hen  indoors  should 
be  about  lo  square  feet. 

Exercise  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  especially  for  laying  and 
breeding  stock,  and  a  good  way  to  assure  this  in  winter-time 
is  to  scatter  the  grain  in  straw  or  any  clean  and  dry  substitute. 

Dampness  is  fatal,  and  dry  warm  houses  free  from  draughts 
are  essential  in  winter.  The  floors  should  be  of  dry  earth  or 
fine  gravel,  or  wooden  floors  covered  with  straw  or  dry  sand. 
The  houses  should  be  warm  enough  to  prevent  freezing  of  water, 
but  should  not  be  warmed  by  heating  apparatus  more  than  will 
insure  against  freezing. 


46 


AGRICULTURE. 


LOSS  IN  WEIGHT  OF  EGGS  DURING  INCUBATION. 

(Stewakt  and  Atwood.) 

Directions  for  ascertaining  the  loss  in  weight  of  eggs  during 
incubation. 

After  placing  the  eggs  upon  the  trays  ready  for  the  incubator, 
set  the  trays  upon  a  pair  of  scales  reading  to  ounces  and  note 
the  total  weight  of  the  eggs  and  trays.  (The  trays  should  be 
thoroughly  dry.)  After  a  few  days  weigh  again.  Subtract 
this  from  the  first  weight.  This  will  give  the  actual  loss  in  the 
weight  of  the  eggs. 

Example. — Suppose  that  you  have  208  eggs  on  the  trays; 
that  the  first  weight  with  trays  is  24  lb.  2  oz.,  and  that  on  the 
sixth  day  the  weight  is  23  lb.  6  oz.  Then  the  loss  in  weight  is 
12  ounces.  Now  look  in  the  table  for  the  loss  in  weight  of  100 
eggs  for  six  days.  This  is  10  ounces.  Ten  ounces  multiplied 
by  208  gives  20.8  ounces,  which  is  the  calculated  loss  for  208 
eggs  for  six  days.  Therefore  the  eggs  have  not  been  losing 
weight  as  rapidly  as  they  should,  and  the  eggs  should  be  given 
more  ventilation  or  the  incubator  should  be  removed  to  a  drier 
location.  (It  is  assumed  that  the  eggs  are  kept  uniformly  at 
the  proper  temperature.)  After  the  eggs  have  been  tested  for 
the  infertile  ones,  weigh  again  and  proceed  as  before. 

Rules. — If  the  eggs  have  lost  too  much  weight,  give  more 
moisture,  or  less  ventilation,  but  in  reducing  ventilation  great 
care  should  be  used,  as  pure  air  in  the  egg  chamber  is  abso- 
lutely necessar}'.  If  the  eggs  have  not  lost  enough  weight, 
open  the  ventilators,  or  place  the  incubator  in  a  drier  place. 
The  table  shows  normal  loss  in  weight  of  100  eggs  in  ounces 
for  the  first  nineteen  days  of  incubation. 


Days.  Loss  in  O : . 

1 1.6s 

3 3-31 

3 4-96 

4 6.62 

S 8.28 

6 10  .  00 

7 11.72 

8 13-44 

9 1516 

10 16.88 


Days.  Loss  in  Oz. 

II 18.  60 

12 20.33 

13 22.10 

14 23.88 

15 25.  66 

16 27.44 

17 20.  21 

18 3009 

19 32.77 


FARM    ANIMALS. 


47 


STANDARD  WEIGHTS  OF  POUIiTRY. 

(Am.  Poultry  Asso.) 


Cotk.      Cockerel. 


A.  American  Breeds. 
Plymouth    Rocks,    Barred    and 

Pea-combed  Barred lbs. 

Plymouth  Rocks,  White.  ..." 
Wyandottes,  Silver,  Golden,  and 

White lbs. 

.Tavas,  Black 

Javas,  Mottled  and  White.  .  .  " 

American  Dominiques " 

Jersey  Blues " 

B.   Asiatic  Breeds. 

Brahmas,  Light " 

Brahmas,  Dark " 

Cochins,  Buff,  Partridge,  White 

and  Black lbs. 

Langshans " 

C.   Other  Breeds  of  Poultry. 
Minorcas,  Black  and  White.  .  lbs. 

Redcaps 

Houdans " 

Crevecoeurs " 

La  Fleche " 

Dorkings,  White " 

Dorkings    Silver  Gray " 

Dorkings,  Colored " 

Bantams,  Game oz. 

Bantams,  Golden  Sebright,  Sil- 
ver Sebright,  Rose-combed 
White,     Rose-combed     Black, 

and  Booted  White oz. 

Bantams,  Pekin  or  Cochin  .  .  " 
Bantams,  Japanese  and  White- 
crested  White oz. 

Russians lbs. 

D.   Turkeys. 

Bronze lbs. 

Narragansett 

Buff.  Slate  and  Black " 

White " 

E.  Ducks. 

Pekin  and  Cayuga lbs. 

.\ylesbury  and  Rouen.  .....   " 

Muscovy,  Colored  and  White..  " 
Crested  White " 


F.  Geese. 


.lbs. 


Toulouse  and  Embden . 

African .-  •  •  • 

Chinese,  Brown  and  White.  .  " 
Canada 


9.5 
9.5 

8.5 
10 
10 

8.5 
10 


12 
11 

11 
9.5 


8 

7.5 
7 
8 

8.5 
7.5 
8 

9.5 
22 


26 
28 

26 

8.5 


35 
32 
27 
26 

Adult 
Drake. 

8 
9 

10 

7 

Adult 
Gander. 
25 
20 
16 
16 


7.5 
8.5 
8.5 
7.5 

7 


10 
9 


6.5 

6 

6 

7 

7.5 

6.5 

7 


20 


22 
24 

2*^ 
7.5 


24 
22 
18 
16 

Young 
Drake. 

7 
8 
8 
6 

Young 
Gander. 

20 

16 

12 

12 


Hen. 


7.5 
7.5 

6.5 
8.5 
8 
6.5 


9.5 

8.5 

8.5 


6.5 
6.5 
6 
7 

7.5 
6 

6.5 
7.5 
20 


22 
24 


22 
6.5 


20 
22 
18 
16 

Adult 
Duck. 

7 
8 


Pullet. 


6.5 
6 

5.5 
6.5 
6.5 
5.5 
5 


5.5 
5 
5 
6 

6.5 
5 

5.5 
6 
18 


20 
22 

20 
5.5 


15 
14 
12 
10 

Young 

Duck. 

6 

7 
7 
5 


Adult 

Young 

Goose. 

Goose. 

23 

18 

18 

14 

14 

10 

14 

10 

48 


AGRICULTURE. 


SYNOPSIS    OF   BREEDS   OF    POULTRY. 

(M.  Lemoine.) 


Breeds. 


Andalusian   

Brahma  (light) 

Cochin  (buff) 

Creve  Coeur 

Dorking  (silver  gray) 

(dark) 

Game 

Hamburgs  (silver  spangled) . . . 
"         (golden  pencilled). 

Houdan 

La  Fleche 

Langshan   

Leghorn  (brown) 

Minorca  (black) 

Plymouth  Rock 

Scotch  Gray 

Wyandottes 


B 

•a  p 


big. 
W 


150 
120 

"5 
122 
130 
130 
100 

239 
225 
125 
140 

"5 

190 
180 
120 
140 
140 


c 

bo  . 

0 

73 
0  rt 

—  Q  i? 

.S 

J3  Ji-S 

>  0-* 

3^ 

bjc 
'v 

Weig 
Bor 
Off 

oz. 

lbs. 

lb. 

oz. 

lb.  oz. 

29H 

5-  6 

3 

I 

2     15 

^m 

8-10 

4 

11 

5      °, 

24 

8-10 

4 

0 

5       4->4 

33 

8-9 

4 

9^ 

4     14^ 

27^ 

7-10 

5 

4J/2 

4     »4 

27^ 

6-  9 

S 

4 

3     12 

24 

5-  6 

3 

i.sV^ 

2       7% 

2014 

4-  5 

2 

3^ 

2       7.>:i 

19^ 

3^-4 

I 

15% 

2       7\j 

26 

6-  7 

3 

7 

2    ioJ4 

29>i 

6-7 

3 

14% 

2     9^ 

27 

7-10 

4 

5     i^ 

22 

5-  6 

3 

rsV^ 

2    1C14 

28^ 

5V^-7 

27!^ 

6-7^ 

29 

6 

3 

4l^ 

2    12 

25 

-M-7 

c 
0.0  . 


oz. 
6% 
9% 

7^4 

6H 

4Vi 
4^4 
4H 
6% 
6H 
7% 
4H 


6% 


HEREDITY. 

By  Prof.  Thos.  Shaw,  formerly  of  Minnesota  Experiment  Station. 

Heredity  in  breeding  relates  to  transmission.  It  is 
doubtless  governed  by  fixed  laws,  but  many  of  these  are 
as  yet  imperfectly  understood.  It  may  be  defined  as  the 
outcome  of  the  operation  of  that  law  whereby  properties 
and  qualities  of  like  kind  with  those  of  the  parents  are 
transmitted  to  the  offspring.  This  transmission  is  cer- 
tainly comprehensive  in  its  character,  since  it  relates  to 
structure,  function  and  qualities,  and  indeed  to  every 
feature  of  the  organization.  But  in  instances  not  a  few 
there  are  apparent  exceptions  to  this  law  of  transmission. 
These,  however,  are  apparent  rather  than  real.  They 
appear  to  us  as  exceptions  because  of  the  limitations  of 
our  knowledge  of  this  great  question.  These  supposed 
exceptions  are  doubtless  the  result  of  the  predominant  in- 
fluence of  other  laws  acting  in  opposition  to  the  hereditary 
tendency,  and  it  is  characterized  as  normal,  abnormal, 
and  acquired,  according  to  its  nature. 


FARM   ANIMALS.  49 

The  heredity  of  normal  characters  means  the  transmis- 
sion of  those  characters  which  are  natural  to  the  type. 
These  may  be  original  traits  bestowed  upon  the  species, 
as  for  instance,  timidity  in  sheep;  or  they  may  have  been 
acquired  and  rendered  permanent  by  long-continued  trans- 
mission, as  in  the  changed  form  of  all  the  improved  breeds 
of  domestic  animals.  The  heredity  of  abnormal  characters 
means  the  transmission  of  irregular  characters,  or  those 
which  have  deviated  from  the  natural  and  acquired  char- 
acteristics of  the  type.  These  abnormal  characters  may 
appear  as  malformations  of  structure,  derangement  of 
function,  or  they  may  assume  one  or  the  other  of  various 
forms  of  disease.  Illustrations  of  the  first  are  found  in 
certain  families  with  an  irregular  number  of  fingers  and 
toes;  of  the  second  in  the  inheritance  of  deafness,  dumb- 
ness and  impaired  vision;  and  of  the  third,  in  the  reap- 
pearance in  the  offspring  of  certain  diseases  possessed  by 
the  parents,  as,  for  instance,  any  of  the  forms  of  scrofula 

The  laws  which  govern  heredity  are  those  also  which 
determine  the  results  in  practical  breeding.  In  practice 
the  rules  which  govern  it  are  almost  entirely  empirical  in 
their  origin,  since  they  have  been  almost  exclusively  de- 
rived from  the  accepted  methods  of  the  most  successful 
breeders.  Those  who  have  given  thought  to  the  question 
will  concede  that  breeding  live-stock  is  at  once  a  science 
and  an  art.  They  will  see  in  it  a  science  in  so  far  as  it 
discovers  and  systematically  arranges  those  truths  and 
principles  which  relate  to  the  improvement  of  live-stock, 
and  it  will  appear  to  them  an  art  in  so  far  as  they  perceive 
that  those  principles  can  be  successfully  utilized  in  prac- 
tice. It  is  apparent  therefore  that  the  relation  between  the 
science  and  the  art  of  breeding  is  both  close  and  intimate. 
Without  some  knowlege  of  the  former  the  latter  is  not 
likely  to  be  successfully  practised,  and  the  measure  of 
success  which  attends  the  efforts  of  the  breeder  will  be 
largely  proportionate  to  the  measure  of  the  knowledge 
which  he  may  possess  of  the  principles  of  heredity. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  certain  laws  which  govern 
transmission.     Of  these  three  may  be  considered  as  funda- 


50^  AGRICLLTl  RK. 

mental,  viz.:  first,  the  law  that  "like  begets  like";  sec- 
ond, the  law  or  principle  of  variation;  and  third,  the  law 
or  principle  known  as  atavism.  Since  these  laws  or  prin- 
ciples appear  to  us  to  lack  uniformity  and  regularity  of 
action,  the  art  of  breeding  is  in  consequence  much  more 
complicated  and  uncertain  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 
This  want  of  uniformity  and  of  regularity  of  action,  how- 
ever, is  apparent  rather  than  real.  But  so  long  as  we  are 
ignorant  of  the  cause  or  causes  of  these  apparent  irregu- 
larities in  transmission,  we  are  unable  to  prevent  them. 
And  yet  there  is  so  much  of  uniformity  in  the  action  of 
these  laws  that  the  intelligent  breeder  cannot  be  said  to 
play  at  a  game  of  chance.  If  well  posted  in  the  art,  his 
efforts  will  in  the  main  be  entirely  successful. 

The  law  that  " /z'/Cv  begets  like"  implies  that  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  parents  will  appear  in  their  offspring. 
This  law  would  seem  to  pervade  all  animated  nature  ; 
generally  speaking  it  is  uniform  in  its  action,  but  there 
are  some  exceptions.  Were  it  not  so,  examples  to  illus- 
trate such  a  law  of  heredity  and  proofs  to  support  it  would 
not  have  been  needed.  That  the  existence  of  this  law  was 
recognized,  and  that  many  of  its  principles  were  well  un- 
derstood from  an  early  period,  finds  ample  illustration  in 
the  breeding  operations  conducted  by  the  patriarch  Ja:ob, 
in  the  monstrous  forms  that  were  bred  for  the  amusement 
of  the  Romans  when  the  decline  of  the  empire  was  pend- 
ing, and  in  the  care  with  which  the  Arabs  kept  their  pedi- 
grees from  a  remote  antiquity. 

So  uniform  is  this  principle  of  heredity  in  its  action  that 
it  may  be  designated  the  compass  which  guides  the  breeder 
into  the  harbor  of  success.  But  before  he  can  anchor  there 
he  must  give  attention  to  cer*:ain  principles,  a  close  adher- 
ence to  which  is  absolutely  essential  to  higher  attainment 
in  results.  He  must,  for  instance,  breed  to  a  standard  of 
excellence;  he  must  set  a  proper  value  on  improved  blood; 
and  he  must  understand  the  art  of  selection  and  the  princi- 
ples of  good  management  generally.  Without  a  standard 
of  excellence  in  his  mind,  that  is,  without  an  ideal  type, 
the  breeder  does   not    himself   know  what  he  is  seeking. 


FARM    ANIMALS.  51 

Without  dominant  or  stable  characters,  in  at  least  one  par- 
ent, no  stability  in  transmission  can  be  looked  for,  and 
without  purity  of  breeding  for  generations  dominant  char- 
acters cannot  be  secured.  Hence  the  great  importance  of 
purity  of  blood  in  effecting  improvement  in  domestic  ani- 
mals. Since  some  inferior  animals  will  occasionally  ap- 
pear, even  where  the  breeding  is  the  most  skilful,  the 
necessity  will  always  exist  for  the  exercise  of  a  most  rigor- 
ous selection  on  the  part  of  every  breeder  who  is  to  stand 
on  the  upland  of  success.  When  aided  by  judicious  selec- 
tion, the  law  that  like  produces  like  enables  us  to  effect 
irnprovernent  until  a  certain  standard  of  excellence  is 
reached,  to  maintain  improvement  when  it  has  been 
secured,  and  to  mould  new  types  and  form  new  breeds. 

By  the  larv  or  principle  of  variation  is  meant  the  ten- 
dency sometimes  found  in  animals  to  produce  characters 
in  the  progeny  which  differ  from  those  of  the  parental 
type.  These  changes  relate  to  both  form  and  function; 
in  time  they  may  become  modifications  of  the  systems  of 
animals.  They  may  be  classed  as  gradual,  or  general  and 
ordinary;  and  as  sudden,  or  spontaneous  and  extraordinary. 
General  variatiott  is  that  tendency  to  change  from  the 
original  type  which  characterizes  in  a  greater  or  a  less  de- 
gree all  the  individuals  of  a  breed.  Illustrations  of  the 
principle  of  general  variation  may  be  found,  first,  in  the 
tendency  of  grain  to  deteriorate  which  has  fallen  upon  an 
unkindly  soil  ;  and  second,  in  the  quick  deterioration  of 
the  heavy  breeds  of  sheep  when  confined  to  unproductive 
and  rugged  pastures.  Chief  among  the  numerous  causes 
leading  to  general  variation  are  changed  conditions  of  life 
in  animals,  as  climate,  food,  habit,  and  environment.  Some- 
times these  influences  act  independently  and  sometimes  in 
conjunction.  The  principle  of  spontaneous  variation  may 
be  defined  as  that  tendency  sometimes  found  in  animals  to 
produce  progeny  more  or  less  unlike  either  of  the  parents 
or  the  ancestry  of  these.  Illustrations  of  the  operation  of 
this  principle  may  be  found  in  the  occasional  production  of 
progeny  very  unlike  the  parents  or  the  ancestry  in  color, 
form,  and  other  characteristics,  and  in  the  existence  of  horn- 
less breeds  of  cattle. 


52  AGRICULTURE. 

By  atavism  is  meant  that  innate  tendency  in  animals  to 
revert  to  the  original  type.  It  differs  from  the  principle 
that  like  produces  like  in  the  reproduction  of  resemblances 
to  an  ancestry  more  or  less  remote  rather  than  to  the  par- 
ents, and  differs  from  spontaneous  variation  in  produc- 
ing resemblances  to  an  ancestry  more  remote  than  the  im- 
mediate parents,  whereas  the  latter  produces  characters 
unlike  those  of  the  ancestry,  whether  near  or  remote.  Il- 
lustrations of  atavic  transmission  are  found  in  the  occa- 
sional apearance  of  scars  or  horns  in  the  polled  breeds  of 
cattle  bred  pure  for  many  successive  generations,  and  in 
the  occasional  appearance  of  tan-colored  spots  on  the  ears 
and  face  of  the  American  merino. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  principles  which  govern  breeding  is  highly  important 
to  those  engaged  in  the  production  of  live-stock.  Hence 
they  should  study  these  with  the  utmost  care  and  should  em- 
body them  in  their  practice  to  the  greatest  possible  extent. 


VETEKINAKY    SCIENCE.  53 


III.    VETERINARY    SCIENCE. 

COMMON    DISEASES   OF   FARM   ANIMALS. 

By  W.  G.  Clark.  M.D.C,  Marinette,  Wi3. 

I.  HORSES. 

The  common  method  of  administering  medicine  to  the  horse 
is  in  the  form  of  a  drench.  In  drenching  a  horse  the  bottle 
should  be  clean,  strong,  and  smooth.  The  head  should  be 
elevated  just  enough  to  prevent  the  horse  from  throwing  the 
liquid  from  the  mouth.  If  the  animal  refuses  to  swallow,  tickle 
the  roof  of  the  mouth  with  the  finger  or  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 
Do  not  rub,  pinch,  or  pound  the  throat,  nor  draw  the  tongue 
out.  These  in  no  way  aid  the  horse  to  swallow  and  often  do 
harm.  If  coughing  occurs  or  by  any  mishap  the  bottle  is 
crushed  in  the  mouih,  lower  the  head  at  once.  Do  not  attempt 
to  pour  medicine  through  the  nose;  it  is  liable  to  strangle  the 
animal. 

Irritating  substances,  as  turpentine,  should  be  given  in  bland 
fluids  such  as  oil  or  milk. 

Warm-water  injections  are  of  great  value  in  treating  many 
bowel  troubles.  A  very  good  injection  pipe  may  be  made  with 
about  30  inches  of  inch  rubber  hose  and  an  ordinary  tin  funnel. 
Oil  the  hose  and  insert  it  in  the  rectum  from  12  to  18  inches,  and 
elevate  the  funnel  above  the  back  and  pour  in  the  water.  The 
force  of  gravitation  will  carry  it  into  the  bowels. 

Soap  and  water,  or  salt  and  water,  may  be  injected  in  this 
manner  m  quantitities  of  a  gallon  or  more  every  hour. 

Spasiiiotlic  Colic. 

Causes. — Error  in  diet  is  the  most  prolific  cause,  as  improper 
food  in  improper  quantities  at  irregular  intervals  ;  large 
draughts  of  cold  water  when  warm  ;  eating  when  exhausted  ; 
intestinal  parasites;   or  foreign  bodies  in  the  bowels. 

Symptoms. — The  horse  manifests  uneasiness,  moves  forward 
and  back  in  the  stall,  looks  toward  the  flank,  switches  the  tail, 
paws,  lies  down  and  rolls;  after  a  little  the  spasm  will  subside 
and  the  animal  become  quiet.     Soon   the   spasm    returns  with 


54  AGRICULTURE. 

increased  severity.  As  the  disease  progresses,  the  animal 
will  become  more  violent  and  the  intervals  between  the 
spasms  shorter. 

Treatment. — Always  urgent,  as  it  often  runs  a  rapid 
course,  terminating  fatally  in  a  few  hours. 

Give  as  a  drench  laudanum  i  oz.,  baking-soda  one  table- 
spoonful,  sweet  spts.  nitre  i  oz.,  water  one  half-pint.  This 
may  be  repeated  in  half  an  hour  if  not  relieved.  Always 
give  injections  of  soap  and  warm  water.  Blanket  the  ani- 
mal and  rub  the  abdomen  briskly.  If  inclined  to  hang  on, 
apply  a  paste  of  mustard  to  the  abdomen  and  give  raw  lin- 
seed oil  I  pt.,  chloral  hydrate  4  dr.,  dissolved  in  warm 
water. 

Flatulent  Colic. 

The  causes  and  symptoms  are  similar  to  those  of  spas- 
modic colic. 

The  pain  is  not  so  severe  at  the  outset  and  gradually  in- 
creases in  severity  as  the  bowels  become  distended  by  gas. 
No  intervals  of  ease  as  in  spasmodic  colic.  The  abdomen 
becomes  rapidly  distended  and  the  animal  dies  from  su'ffo^ 
cation  or  rupture  of  the  bowels  unless  soon  relieved. 

Treatment.  —  Usually  necessary  to  puncture  with  a  tro- 
car and  canula,  which  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  anat- 
omy of  the  parts.  Internally  give  hyposulfite  of  soda  2  oz., 
fl.  ex.  ginger  4  dr.,  spts.  turpentine  4  dr.,  water  i  pint. 
Repeat  in  half  an  hour  if  necessary.  Give  injection  of  soap 
and  warm  water  at  short  intervals. 

Pneiimonia — Lung  Fever. 

The  most  common  cause  is  exposure  to  a  cold  draught 
when  tired  and  sweaty. 

Symptoms.  —  It  is  usually  ushered  in  with  a  chill,  fol- 
lowed by  fever.  The  ears  and  legs  are  cold,  pulse-rate  in- 
creased, labored  breathing,  elbows  turned  out,  increased 
working  of  the  ribs,  the  animal  persistently  stands,  appe- 
tite usually  lost. 

Treatment.  —  Place  in  a  comfortable  well-ventilated  box- 
stall.     Blanket   warmly,  rub   the  legs  and  apply  bandages. 


VETEHi.naRY    SCIENCK.  00 

During  the  chill  give  large  doses  of  stimulants,  as  whisky, 
akohol,  ginger,  etc.,  at  short  intervals. 

[£  the  breathing  is  not  relieved  in  a  few  hours,  apply  mus- 
tard over  the  ribs,  just  back  of  the  shoulder  blades. 

Give  nourishing,  easily  digested  food.  Keep  the  animal, 
perfectly  quiet.  Give  ^-oz.  doses  of  nitrate  of  potash  in  the 
drinking-water  three  times  daily.  After  the  chill  is  relieved 
keep  a  pail  of  fresh  water  before  the  animal  at  all  times. 

Azoturia — Black- water. 

This  disease  is  quite  common  among  farm  horses, 
and  is  due  solely  to  overfeeding  on  nitrogenous  foods  and 
lack  of  exercise,  followed  by  the  accumulation  in  the  sys- 
tem of  waste  matters. 

SvMPTOMS. — The  animal  is  taken  from  the  barn  after  a 
few  days'  rest  on  full  rations,  apparently  as  well  as  usual. 
After  driving  from  half  a  mile  to  six  or  eight  miles  the 
hcrse  will  begin  to  lag  and  sweat  profusely.  Shortly  will 
begin  to  go  lame,  usually  in  one  hind  limb.  If  urged  on, 
will  soon  lose  the  use  of  the  limbs  and  fall  to  the 
ground,  unable  to  rise.  The  urine  if  passed  will 
be  dark  and  coffee-colored.  This  is  a  diagnos- 
tic symptom.  The  muscles  over  the  hips  become  hard 
and  swollen,  and  the  animal  will  struggle  convulsively  and 
attempt  to  rise. 

Treatment. — Unhitch  the  animal  as  soon  as  the  first  symp- 
toms are  noticed  and  take  the  horse  to  the  nearest  barn.  Fold 
a  woolen  blanket  and  wring  out  of  hot  water  and  place  over  the 
hips,  covering  with  a  dry  blanket.  Repeat  as  soon  as  it  becomei 
cool,  and  continue  this  until  the  more  acute  symptoms  are  re 
lieved.  internally  give  laudanum  i  oz.,  raw  linseed  oil  one  pint, 
and  repeat  the  laudanum  in  an  hour  if  the  pain  is  not  relieved. 
It  possible,  the  urine  should  be  drawn  with  a  catheter,  as  it  is 
rarely  passed  when  the  animal  is  down.  Give  injections  of  soapy 
warm  water  at  'requent  intervals. 

Distempor — Strans'GS. 

This  is  a  contagious  disease  due  to  a  specific  virus  that  very 
few  horses  escape.  It  usually  runs  a  benign  course  and  termi- 
nates favorably. 


00 


AGRICULTURE. 


Treatment.  —It  is  not  of  much  use  to  attempt  to  check  the 
course  of  the  disease;  in  all  cases  proper  shelter  and  nursing  are 
most  important. 

Give  laxative  sloppy  food  and  apply  warm  poultices  to  the 
throat,  to  hasten  suppuraiion.  In  no  case  give  purging  or  de- 
pressing medicines.  In  fact,  the  whole  treatment  consists  in 
producing  and  favoring  the  discharge  of  the  abscess.  As  soon 
as  fluctuation  can  be  detected  the  abscess  should  be  opened. 
When  the  disease  assumes  the  malignant  form  or  is  complicated, 
apply  to  a  competent  veterinarian. 

Sprains. 

Treatment. — Rest  in  a  quiet  well-bedded  stall.  If  the  injury 
is  below  the  knee  or  hock  and  the  weather  is  warm,  bathe  the 
part  three  times  daily  for  an  hour  at  a  time  with  cold  water  an(^ 
rub  dry. 

If  above  the  knee  or  hock,  or  the  weather  is  cold,  use  hot  water. 

After  bathing  apply  a  mild  stimulant,  as  spirits  of  camphor, 
arnica,  etc. 

If  the  lameness  persists  after  the  active  inflammation  is  re- 
duced use  the  following  liniment:  aqua  ammonia  and  spirits 
turpentine,  4  oz. ;  of  each  linseed  oil  8  oz. ;  mix  and  apply  twice 
daily  with  friction. 

Punctured  "Wounds  of  the  Foot. 

In  all  cases  the  horn  around  the  seat  of  the  injury  should 
be  thinned  down  and  a  free  opening  made  for  the  escape  of 
the  products  of  suppuration.  Cauterize  the  wound  with  95 
per  cent  carbolic  acid  and  apply  a  poultice.  Change  twice 
daily  and  dress  the  wound  with  the  following  lotion:  Zinc 
sulph.  I  oz.,  sugar  lead  i  oz.,  carbolic  acid  4  dr.,  water  i  pint. 

Thruslu 

The  most  common  cause  of  thrush  is  the  filthy  condition  of 
the  stable  in  which  the  horse  is  kept.  Muddy  yards  and  roads, 
also  hard  work  on  rough,  stony  roads  may  excite  this  disease. 

Symptoms. — Increased  secretion  in  the  cleft  of  the  frog  and 
an  offensive  odor.  After  a  time  considerable  discharge  takes 
place  and  there  is  rapid  destruction  of  the  tissue  of  the  frog. 

Treatment. — Remove  the  cause.  Cut  away  all  diseased  tissue 
and  cleanse  the  foot  thoroughly.  Take  white  vitriol  i  oz.,  and 
water  6  ozs.  Saturate  pledgets  of  tow  or  cotton  with  the  solu- 
tion and  crowd  into  the  cleft  and  each  side  of  the  frog.  Dres? 
once  dailv  until  the  Hlcn^'-rrre  ceases. 


VETERINARY    SCIENCE.  57 

Cuts  from  Barb-wire,  etc. 

When  bleeding  to  any  extent  follows  a  wound,  this  must  first 
be  checked. 

A  moderately  tight  bandage  with  oakum,  tow,  or  cobwebs  will 
usually  stop  the  bleeding  in  a  short  time.  If  the  blood  is  bright 
red  and  flows  in  jets, apply  a  compress  between  the  wound  and 
the  heart. 

If  it  is  dark  and  the  flow  regular,  apply  pressure  between  the 
wound  and  the  extremity.  Cleanse  the  wound  thoroughly  with 
warm  water  and  a  soft  sponge.  Then  dress  with  a  3  per  cent 
solution  of  carbolic  acid  and  apply  a  bandage  so  as  to  bring  the 
edges  together.     If  proud  flesh  appears,  treat  it  with  burnt  alum, 

II.  COWS. 

Milk   Fever. 

Symptoms.  —  Dulness,  uneasy  movements  of  the  hind 
limbs,  head  and  horns  hot;  the  animal  soon  becomes  weak 
and  unable  to  rise,  head  laid  back  on  the  flank  or  dashed  to 
the  ground,  bowels  constipatC<?,  sensation  usually  lost. 

Treatment. — Air  treatment  properly  administered  under 
antiseptic  conditions  has  practically  removed  the  danger  of  this 
disease.  The  necessary  apparatus,  which  costs  $2  to  $3,  can  be 
purchased  of  veterinary  instrument  dealers  or  dairy-supply 
houses.     Directions  for  use  accompany  the  apparatus. 

Prevention. — Do  not  milk  the  udder  dry  at  any  time  for  the 
first  few  days  after  calving,  withdrawing  a  portion  of  the  milk 
at  intervals  of  4  to  5  hours  to  relieve  distention  of  the  udder. 
Give  a  spare  diet  for  a  week  before  and  after  calving.  If  con- 
stipated after  delivery,  give  a  purgative  dose  of  salts. 

Garget. 

Causes. — Irregularities  of  diet,  overfeeding  on  stimulat- 
ing food,  exposure  to  cold,  external  injuries,  as  blows,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Seldom  attacks  the  whole  udder.  Swelling, 
heat,  pain,  and  redness  of  the  inflamed  portion.  The  milk 
is  curdled,  whey-like,  and  mixed  with  blood.  In  severe 
cases  there  is  much  constitutional  disturbance. 

Treatment. — Endeavor  to  discover  the  cause  and  remove 
it.  The  food  should  be  devoid  of  milk-producing  constitu- 
ents.     Draw  the  milk  frequently,   using  a  milking-tube  if 


58  AGRICULTURE. 

necessary.     If  the  weather  is  warm,  bathe  the  udder  for  an  hour 
or  more  with  hot  water. 

Take  fluid  extract  belladonna  i  oz. ,  p^lycerin  2  oz.;  mix  and 
apply  three  times  daily  with  mild  friction.  Give  two  teaspoon- 
tuls  fluid  extract  belladonna  three  times  daily.  If  constipated, 
give  Epsom  salts  i  lb.,  ginger  i  oz.,  water  i  qt. 

Abortion. 

The  cow  may  abort  from  any  cause  profoundly  disturbing 
the  nervous  system,  inflammation  of  the  internal  organs, 
diarrhoea,  acute  indigestion,  blows  on  the  abdomen,  expos- 
ure to  cold  storms,  drinking  ice-water,  feeding  on  ergotized 
grains  and  grasses,  and  infection  from  abortion  discharges 
of  other  animals. 

Symptoms. — If  it  occurs  within  the  first  two  months  it  is 
not  apt  to  be  noticed.  During  the  latter  part  of  gestation 
abortion  resembles  normal  delivery,  except  that  more  effort 
and  straining  are  present. 

Trkatment. — The  most  important  object  in  an  impending 
abortion  is  to  recognize  it  as  soon  as  possible  and  apply 
preventive  measures.  Place  in  a  quiet  dark  stall  and  check 
straining  by  sedatives.  Laudanum  i  oz. ;  repeat  in  two 
hours  if  necessary;  or  fl.  ex.  black  haw.  in  same  doses. 

After  an  abortion  burn  the  foetus  and  afterbirth  and  all 
Htter  that  is  soiled,  or  bury  deeply  and  cover  with  quick- 
lime. 

Flood  tne  womb  with  a  2^  solution  of  carbolic  acid  and 
wash  the  external  organs  once  daily  with  a  5^  solution. 
Separate  from  the  herd  for  30  days. 

In  epizootic  abortion  material  benefit  has  in  many  cases 
been  derived  from  phosphate  of  lime.  Small  doses  (^  dram) 
mav  be  given  daily  in  the  food. 

Hoven  or  Bloat. 

Causes. — Overeating,  choking,  frosted  roots,  and  fermen- 
tation of  the  food. 

Treatment. — In  urgent  cases  tap  on  the  left  side  at  a 
point  equidistant  from  the  point  of  the  hip,  the  last  rib  and 
the  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae,  pointing  the  troca' 


VETERINARY   SCIENCE.  59 

or  knife  downward,  inward,  and  f(jrward.  If  slight  give 
spts.  turpentine  i  oz.,  raw  linseed  oil  ^  pt.,  and  place  a  gag 
in  the  mouth. 

When  relieved  give  a  purgative  and  keep  on  a  light  diet 
for  a  few  days. 

Diarrhoea  in  Calves. 

Always  d*ie  to  indigestion  and  caused  usually  by  over- 
feeding or  improper  food. 

Prevention. — Feed  at  least  three  times  daily.  The  milk 
should  be  sweet  and  fed  at  a  temperature  of  90°  to  100°  F. 
The  pails  used  in  feeding  should  be  kept  sweet  and  clean. 

Treatment. — Cut  down  the  ration,  scald  the  milk  or  add 
lime-w^ater  in  the  proportion  of  i  to  5.  If  the  discharges 
are  bright  yellow  give  castor  oil  i  to  2  tablespoonfuls.  If 
there  is  great  weakness  give  small  doses  of  stimulants 
(ginger,  brandy,  whisky). 

Clioking. 

Common  among  cattle  when  fed  on  roots,  etc.  To  pre- 
vent tie  the  head  so  that  it  cannot  be  thrown  up,  or  withhold 
dangerous  foods. 

Symptoms. — Head  extended,  bloating,  labored  breathing, 
continuous  coughing.  If  in  the  throat  there  is  great  distress 
and  the  animal  may  die  quickly.  If  lower  the  symptoms 
are  not  as  acute. 

Treatment. — If  in  the  throat  remove  with  the  hand.  If 
below  reach  and  the  object  can  be  located  from  the  outside, 
give  small  drenches  of  linseed  oil  and  manipulate  from  the 
outside.  Take  time.  Do  not  apply  too  much  force.  Usu- 
ally best  to  work  the  object  toward  the  throat. 

If  unable  to  remove  the  object  it  must  be  pushed  down; 
this  may  be  done  with  a  piece  of  i-in.  rubber-hose,  6  ft.  in 
length,  well  oiled,  and  inserted  in  the  gullet,  and  gently 
force  the  object  down. 

Tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis  is  an  infectious  disease  characterized  by  the 
formation  in  the  various  organs  of  the  body  of  tubercles  or 


GO  AGRICULTURE. 

nodules,  and  is  due  to  a  specific  micro-organism,  the  bacillus 
tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis  in  animals  is  identical  wit-h  tuberculosis 
(consumption)  in  the  human  family,  the  ravages  of  which 
are  far  greater  than  those  of  any  other  disease. 

The  death  rate  from  consumption,  which  is  but  one  of  its 
many  forms,  is  about  one  in  seven. 

All  domestic  animals  are  more  or  less  subject  to  the  dis- 
ease. Dairy  cattle,  however,  in  consequence  of  their  mode 
of  life  and  the  heavy  drain  on  their  system  from  excessive 
breeding  and  milking,  are  more  predisposed  to  the  disease 
than  any  other  of  the  domestic  animals. 

Cause. — The  essential  cause  is  the  specific  germ,  the 
tubercle  bacillus,  without  which  the  disease  could  not  exist. 
Since  the  disease  is  found  in  the  lungs  in  a  large  proportion 
of  cases,  it  is  evident  that  tuberculosis  is  usually  contracted 
by  inhaling  the  germs  with  the  air.  It  may  also  be  caused 
by  the  ingestion  of  infected  meat  and  milk  and  by  direct 
inoculation. 

The  development  of  the  disease  is  favored  by  anything 
that  tends  to  impair  the  general  health  of  the  animal,  as 
overcrowding  in  poorly  ventilated  stables,  hereditary  pre- 
disposition, in-and-in  breeding,  lack  of  exercise,  errors  in 
diet,  etc. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  very  obscure,  and  in  some 
cases  where  the  disease  is  well  advanced  there  is  seemingly 
little  alteration  in  the  health  of  the  animal.  The  most 
prominent  symptoms  are  a  short,  husky  cough,  enlargement 
of  the  lymph  glands  around  the  throat,  dulness,  capricious 
appetite,  staring  coat,  and  emaciation. 

Persistent  oestrum  or  heat,  with  barrenness,  especially 
when  there  is  a  harsh,  staring  coat  and  general  unthrifty 
condition,  is  suspicious. 

The  Tuberculin  Test. — Tuberculin  is  a  glycerin  ex- 
tract of  the  soluble  products  produced  by  the  growth  of  the 
tubercle  bacillus,  concentrated,  filtered,  and  sterilized. 
When  properly  prepared  it  contains  no  living  germs  and 
cannot  produce  tuberculosis.  It  was  introduced  to  the 
medical  profession  by  Dr.  Koch  as  a  cure  for  tuberculosis. 


VETKIilNARY    SCIENCE.  61 

Although  it  has  not  found  practical  application  as  a  curative 
agent,  it  furnishes  us  the  best  diagnostic  agent  for  bovine 
tuberculosis  yet  known  (see  page  69). 

A  summary  of  statistics  indicates  that  about  88  per  cent 
of  tuberculous  animals  show  the  reaction  fever  on  inocula- 
tion, while  go  per  cent  that  were  declared  free  frcm  disease 
on  account  of  the  absence  of  fever  did  not  show  on  autopsy 
any  signs  of  the  disease. 

Prevention. — The  stables  should  be  light  and  well  ven- 
tilated. Cattle  should  be  kept  from  interchange  of  stalls 
or  stanchions.  Breed  only  from  healthy  animals.  No  con- 
sumptive person  should  be  allowed  to  care  for  stock. 

Isolate  all  suspected  animals.  Such  animals  should  be 
examined  by  a  competent  veterinarian,  and  if  found  to  be 
tuberculous  the  whole  herd  should  be  tested.  Tuberculous 
animals  should  be  killed  and  the  carcasses  burned  or  buried 
deeply  and  covered  with  quicklime.  Disinfection  should 
be  thorough.  Remove  and  burn  all  litter.  Burn  sulphur 
in  the  closed  stable.  Wash  or  spray  all  woodwork  with  a 
solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  one  part,  to  '^ne  thousand 
parts  of  water. 

Corrosive  sublimate  is  a  deaaiy  poison  and  should  be 
used  with  care.     Whitewash  with  freshly  slaked  lime. 

III.   SHEEP. 
Scab. 

Due  to  parasitic  mites  which  infest  the  skin. 

Symptoms. — Intense  itching,  small  reddish  pimples  ap- 
pear, rupture,  and  discharge  a  watery  fluid;  scabs  form,  the 
wool  falls  out  in  patches.  Large  sores  sometimes  result 
from  the  incessant  rubbing.  The  pai'asite  may  be  seen  with 
a  low-power  lens. 

Treatment. — Take  one  pound  of  tobacco  to  each  five 
gallons  of  water  and  boil  until  the  strength  is  exhausted 
from  the  leaves.  Strain  and  add  one  pound  of  sulphur  to 
each  five  gallons.  Allow  each  sheep  to  remain  in  the  bath 
for  five  minutes,  working  the  solution  into  all  parts  of  the 
skin  and  breaking  up  the  scabs.  Place  on  a  slooping  rack 
and  press  the  liquid  out  of  the  fleece,  allowing  it  to  run  back 
into  the  trough.     The  same  dip  may  bo  used  for  ticks. 


62  AGRICULTURE. 

Foot-Rot. 

Separate  the  sound  animals  from  the  diseased  ones  and 
irom  contaminated  pastures  and  buildings.  Carefully 
/emove  all  diseased  horn  and  foreign  bodies  and  walk 
the  sheep  through  a  trough  containing  one  pound  of  blue 
vitriol  to  three  gallons  of  water.  Place  the  infected  flock 
on  a  dry  upland  pasture,  if  possible. 

Grub  ill  the  Head, 

This  is  the  larvae  of  a  small  gadfly  {vestrtts  ovis)  which 
deposits  its  eggs  within  the  nostrils.  It  stays  there  during 
the  winter  and  spring,  often  proving  harmless,  but  some- 
times causing  much  irritation,  a  white  muco-purulent  dis- 
charge, with  dullness  and  stupor. 

Prevention. — Smear  the  nose  with  tar,  or  feed  salt  from 
two-inch  augur-holes  bored  in  a  log,  the  surface  of  which  is 
smeared  with  tar. 

Treatment. — Place  in  a  warm  building  and  introduce 
into  the  nostrils  snuff,  a  solution  of  tobacco,  or  turpentine 
and  olive-oil  equal  parts,  to  kill  the  larvae  or  cause  their 
expulsion  by  sneezing;  or  place  in  a  close  room  and  subjci  ( 
to  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  for  15  min,,  as  strong  as 
can  be  endured,  once  daily  for  3  or  4  days. 

IV.  SWINE. 

Hog  Cliolera. 

A  specific  contagious  fever  of  swine. 

Symptoms. — The  period  of  incubation  varies  from  three 
to  fifteen  days.  Shivering,  nose  hot  and  dry,  later  refuses 
food,  lies  under  the  litter,  eyes  sunken,  gait  unsteady. 
Heat  and  soreness  of  the  skin,  with  tenderness,  red  patches 
and  black  spots;  labored  breathing;  hard,  dry  cough;  sore- 
ness of  the  belly;  costiveness,  followed  by  a  foetid  diar- 
rhoea. 

Prevention. — If  it  breaks  out  in  a  herd,  kill  and  bury  the 
diseased.  Thoroughly  disinfect  everything  they  have  come 
in  contact  with,  using  one-half  ounce  of  corrosive  sublimate 
in  four  gallons  of  water.  Burn  all  straw  and  litter.  Give 
the  healthy  ones  clean,  dry  quarters.  If  possible,  divide  up 
the  herd,  placing  a  few  in  each  pen.     Allow  free  access  to 


VETEBTNARY    SCIENCE. 


63 


wood  or  animal  charcoal  and  give  in  the  drinking-water  tec 
drops  of  carbolic  acid  for  each  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
of  live  weight.  Take  the  temperature  daily,  inserting  a 
clinical  thermometer  in  the  rectum,  and  remove  every 
animal  showing  a  temperature  of  103°  or  over. 

Kill  and  bury  as  soon  as  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  are 
well  manifested. 

Medicinal  treatment  of  the  disease  is  of  but  little  avail. 
A  good  dietetical  treatment,  including  a  strict  obsei  vance  of 
sanitary  principles,  is  of  much  more  importance  than  the 
use  of  medicines. 

The  pens  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  The  food 
given  should  be  clean,  of  the  best  quality,  and  easily 
digested.  The  troughs  used  in  feeding  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned  at  least  once  daily.  Keep  away  from  in- 
fected herds,  as  the  germs  may  be  carried  on  the  shoes  or 
clothing.  It  is  said  that  the  virus  will  blow  half  a  mile  on 
the  wind.     It  may  also  be  spread  by  birds  and  dogs. 

Intestinal  Worms. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  common  troubles  of  swine. 

Symptoms. — A  cough  is  usually  the  first  symptom  noticed; 
animals  have  a  voracious  appetite,  yet  lose  flesh  and  exhibit 
general  signs  of  ill  health.  If  the  faeces  are  examined  the 
worms  or  their  eggs  can  usually  be  found. 

Treatment. — Give  one  teaspoonful  of  spirits  of  turpentine 
for  each  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  live  weight  once 
daily  in  milk  or  oil.  Place  common  salt  where  they  can  have 
free  access  to  it.     Give  nutritious,  easily  digested  food. 

VETERINARY  REMEDIES  AND  DOSES. 

By  W.  G.  Clark,  M.D.C,  Marinette,  Wis. 
Graduation  of  Doses. 


Horse. 

Ox. 

Dose. 

3  years. 
2      *' 

6  months. 
,-6        ■■ 

2  years. 

I       " 

Q  months. 

3-6    :; 
1-3 

1  part. 

2/3    " 
1/3    " 
1/8    •• 
1/16 — T/32  part. 

64  AGRICULTURE. 

When  not  specified,  the  doses  given  apply  to  a  full-grown 
horse  of  medium  size.  Dose  for  the  ox,  from  i^  to  2  parts; 
sheep,  ^  to  ^  part.  Animals  of  a  nervous  temperament  are 
usually  more  susceptible  to  the  action  of  drugs. 

No  agent  should  be  given  until  sufficiently  diluted  to 
prevent  irritation  of  the  mouth,  and  irritants  that  will  not 
mix  with  water  (turpentine,  etc.)  should  be  given  in  linseed 
oil,  milk,  or  eggs,  after  being  thoroughly  mixed. 

Raw  Linseed  Oil. — Dose  :  Horse,  one  half-pint  to  one 
quart.  Laxative  in  small  doses,  purgative  in  large.  Not 
so  active  as  castor  oil.  A  valuable  laxative  in  young  and 
delicate  animals.  For  calves  and  lambs  it  is  more  gentle 
and  safer  than  salts.  In  adults  it  is  the  best  laxative  to 
use  where  there  is  an  irritable  condition  of  the  bowels,  and 
in  all  febrile  diseases  where  a  laxative  is  needed.  In  im- 
paction of  the  bowels  a  pint  may  be  given  two  or  three 
times  daily  until  relieved,  supplemented  by  warm-water 
injections  every  two  hours.  Valuable  in  cases  of  choking 
on  account  of  its  lubricating  qualities. 

Castor  Oil. — Causes  more  griping  and  nausea  than  lin- 
seed oil  and  is  more  certain  in  its  action.  Used  chiefly  as  a 
laxative  for  calves,  foals,  sheep,  swine,  and  dogs. 

Useful  in  diarrhoea  of  calves  and  other  young  animals 
when  the  discharges  are  bright  yellow  and  irritating. 
Dose  for  a  calf,  from  i  to  4  tablespoonfuls. 

Epsom  Salts. — For  cattle  this  is  the  purgative  in  most 
frequent  and  general  use.  Adult  cattle  take  from  i  lb.  to  i^ 
lbs.  In  small  doses  in  febrile  diseases  it  lowers  the  tem- 
perature, improves  the  appetite,  and  helps  to  maintain  a 
healthy  and  regular  action  of  the  bowels.  Epsom  salts  is 
one  of  the  best  antidotes  for  lead  poisoning.  When  used 
as  a  purgative,  give  from  i  to  2  oz.  ginger  with  the  salts. 

Oil  of  Turpentine  (Spts.  Turpentine). — Dose  :  Horse, 
^  to  I  oz.  Very  irritating  to  the  mucous  membrane,  and  when 
used  internally  should  be  given  in  oil  or  some  bland  fluid. 
Stimulant  and  anti-spasmodic.  One  of  the  most  useful 
remedies  in  flatulent  colic  in  the  horse,  and  hoven  or  bloat 
in  the  ox.  Also  used  to  kill  and  expel  intestinal  worms. 
When   used   for  this   purpose,   it   is  given  after   fasting  in 


VKTEIilXARY    SCIEXCE  (55 

large  doses,  i^  lo  2  oz.  for  the  horse,  followed  in  12  hours 
by  a  purgative. 

Applied  externally  it  is  an  irritant  and  is  used  in  many 
liniments.  The  following  liniment  may  be  used  where  a 
mild  counter-irritant  is  desired  :  Oil  of  turpentine  and  aqua 
ammonia,  of  each  4  oz.,  linseed  oil  S  oz.  Mix.  This  lini- 
ment is  used  chiefly  for  rheumatic  swellings,  sprains,  and 
bruises  after  the  active  pain  is  subdued  by  fomentations, 
and  for  sore  throats,  as  seen  in  distemper. 

Alcohol.  —  Dose  :  Korse,  ^  oz.  well  diluted,  whisky 
or  brandy  2  to  4  oz.  Alcohol  is  a  narcotic  poison.  It  first 
stimulates,  then  deranges,  and  ultimately  depresses  the 
functions  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  It  kills,  as  a  rule,  by 
paralysis  of  respiration.  Medicinally  it  is  a  very  valuable, 
diffusible  stimulant,  anti-spasmodic  heart  tonic  and  anti- 
septic. Moderate  doses  increase  the  gastric  secretions  and 
aid  digestion,  but  large  doses  destroy  pepsin,  arrest  secre- 
tion, and  interfere  with  absorption.  There  is  probably  no 
drug  more  extensively  used  than  alcohol.  It  is  useful  in 
indigestion,  spasmodic  colic,  cases  of  poisoning  by  aconite 
or  tobacco.  It  is  valuable  in  influenza  and  debilitating  dis- 
eases. In  blood-poisoning  whisky  combined  with  quinine 
is  one  of  the  most  efl'ective  agents  we  have  in  controlling 
the  temperature  and  keeping  up  the  strength  of  the  animal. 

The  following  is  very  useful  in  some  cases  of  indigestion: 
Whisky  i  pt.,  quinine  (sulfate)  i  oz.,  water  i  pt.  Mix. 
Give  3  ounces  at  intervals  of  3  to  4  or  6  hours,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  case. 

Saltpeter  (Nitrate  of  Potash). — Dose  :  Horse,  i  tea- 
spoonful  to  half  an  ounce.  Large  doses  are  irritant  and 
cathartic  and  are  liable  to  cause  Inflammation  of  the  bow- 
els. Medicinal  doses  are  discretive,  alterative,  antiseptic, 
febrifugal,  and  refrigerant.  In  febrile,  inflammatory,  and 
rheumatic  complaints  it  allays  fever,  lowers  excessive  tem- 
perature, and  removes  by  the  kidneys  both  solid  and  fluid 
matters.  Dissolved  in  water  and  applied  externally  it  ab- 
stracts heat  and  is  a  useful  refrigerant.  Combined  with 
sulfate  of  iron  it  makes  an  excellent  tonic  for  horses 
recovering  from  debilitating  diseases. 


66  AGRICULTURE. 

Saltpeter  2  cz.,  dried  sulf.  iron  3  oz.  Mix.  Give  2 
teaspoonfuls  with  the  feed  2  or  3  times  daily. 

Alum. — Alum  is  an  astringent.  Chiefly  used  externally. 
Use  a  saturated  solution  in  hot  water.  Applied  to  the 
shoulders  of  horses  in  the  spring  it  toughens  the  skin  and 
prevents  collar  galls.  Useful  in  healing  harness-galls. 
One  of  the  best  lotions  to  apply  to  barb-wire  cuts  and  other 
wounds  of  a  similar  nature  to  prevent  growth  of  proud 
flesh.  Sometimes  dusted  over  the  surface  in  the  form 
of  burnt  alum  ;  not  so  effective  as  the  saturated  solution. 

Ginger.  —  Dose  :  Horse,  4  to  i  oz.  Ginger  stimulates 
the  various  mucous  membranes  with  which  it  comes  in 
contact.  Administered  internally  it  increases  the  gas- 
tric secretions,  facilitates  digestion,  and  checks  formation 
of  gas.  It  is  a  useful  adjunct  to  many  medicines  and  is 
given  with  tonics  and  stimulants.  Combined  with  purga- 
tives it  diminishes  their  liability  to  nauseate  and  gripe,  and 
also  hastens  their  effect.  It  is  used  in  all  domesticated  ani- 
mals to  fulfil  those  purposes,  and  is  especially  adapted  to 
cattle  and  sheep. 

Carbolic  Acid.  —  One  of  the  best  and  cheapest  disinfec- 
tants known.  For  dressing  fresh  wounds  it  may  be  used 
in  from  2  per  cent  to  5  per  cent  watery  solution.  In  oil  I 
part  to  15.  Inhalation  of  the  vapor  with  steam  is  of  great 
service  in  malignant  sore  throat  and  abscesses  following 
strangles.  Carbolic  acid  is  a  narcotic  irritant  poison,  and 
considerable  care  must  be  exercised  in  its  use,  as  it  is  liable 
to  become  absorbed  and  produce  poisonous  effects  if  ap- 
plied over  a  large  surface  in  a  strong  solution.  It  has  been 
highly  recommended  in  the  treatment  of  hog  cholera.  It 
may  be  given  to  hogs  in  doses  of  from  i  to  5  drops  well 
diluted. 

Pine  Tar. — Not  much  emploj^ed  internally.  It  is  a  good 
dressing  in  thrush  and  canker  of  the  horse's  foot.  It  is  also 
of  special  service  in  foot-rot  in  sheep.  It  acts  as  a  stimulant 
and  deodorizer  to  foul-smelling  wounds  and  prevents  the 
attacks  of  flies. 

Lime  Water. — Lime  water  is  piepared  by  slaking  a  small 
quantity   of    freshly  burned  lime  with   a  large   quantity  of 


VETERINARY    SCIENCE.  67 

vvater,  allowing  the  undissolved  matter  to  settle  and  pour- 
ing off  the  clear  solution.  This  should  be  kept  in  tightly 
corked  bottles.  Lime  water  is  an  alkali  and  is  used  in  in- 
digestion, bloat,  and  diarrhoea,  especially  among  calves. 
Given  with  the  milk  in  the  proportion  of  1:5.  Scalds  and 
burns  may  be  treated  with  carron  oil,  which  is  composed  of 
lime  water  and  linseed  oil,  equal  parts.  Fresh  lime  in 
powder  and  solution  is  used  in  cleansing  and  disinfecting 
stables.  For  this  purpose  a  little  carbolic  acid  may  be 
added  to  the  solution. 

Sulfur. — In  large  doses  it  is  an  active  irritant  poison.  In 
medicinal  doses  it  is  a  laxative,  alterative,  and  stimulates 
secretion.  Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  animal 
from  taking  cold  when  given  sulfur.  It  opens  the  pores  of 
the  skin  and  stimulates  perspiration.  Chiefly  used  in  treat- 
ing rheumatism  and  chronic  skin  diseases.     Dose  :  Horse, 

i  OZ.   to  2  OZ. 

SUPPRESSION    OF    HOG    CHOLERA    AND    SWINE 
PLAGUE.      (Craig.) 

Causes. — Hog  cholera  and  swine  plague  are  caused  by 
different  bacteria,  but  they  are  equally  dependent  for  the 
success  of  their  attacks  on  the  unhealthiness  of  the  hogs, 
due  in  most  instances  to  unwholesome  food  and  filthy  sur- 
roundings. The  causes  are  so  similar  and  the  symptoms 
are  so  much  alike  and  often  complicated  that  it  will  be  best 
to  consider  the  diseases  together  in  what  follows.  The 
germs  that  cause  them  are  easily  spread  over  large  terri- 
tories by  being  carried  by  cars,  wagons,  or  tlie  shoes  of  per- 
sons that  have  been  among  infected  hogs.  Most  frequently 
the  origin  of  the  outbreak  maybe  traced  to  the  importation 
of  hogs  from  diseased  districts  or  to  spread  from  such 
centers  by  running  streams. 

Symptoms. — The  first  symptoms  usually  shown  in  attacks 
of  these  diseases  are  those  that  indicate  fever — a  rise  in 
temperature,  thirst,  loss  of  appetite,  and  redness  of  the  skin 
on  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  and  inner  side  of  the  thigh. 
Usually  a  hog  so  diseased   begins   to  cough    when   started 


68  AGRICULTURE. 

from  its  bed.  A  constipated  condition  of  the  bowels 
changes  to  diarrhoea  as  the  disease  progresses,  and  this 
results  in  a  rapid  loss  of  flesh.  Dissection  generally  shows 
the  lungs  to  be  inflamed,  the  spleen  enlarged,  or  the 
lining  of  the  large  intestine  covered  with  numerous  ulcers. 

Prevention. — To  protect  hogs  from  attacks  of  these  dis- 
eases it  is  necessary  to  observe  the  following  recommen- 
dations: The  hogs  should  not  be  watered  at  running 
streams,  as  the  germs  are  readily  carried  by  these.  Per- 
sons coming  from  infected  districts  should  not  be  allowed 
to  go  near  your  hogs,  and  you  should  not  go  among  your 
neighbors'  hogs  if  they  are  sick.  When  other  hogs  are 
brought  to  your  farm,  assume  that  they  are  infected  and 
keep  them  away  from  yours  at  least  for  six  weeks.  Observe 
as  much  cleanliness  as  possible  in  regard  to  food  and  sur- 
roundings. Feed  a  mixture  of  foods  in  a  sloppy  or  soft  con- 
dition, and  withhold  heavy  grain  feeding.  Disinfect  the 
quarters  of  the  hogs  by  sprinkling  liberally  with  a  live  per 
cent  solution  (by  volume)  of  carbolic  acid,  and  use  a  two  per 
cent  solution  of  the  same  for  washing  the  hogs. 

Treatment. — The  hogs  showing  any  of  the  symptoms 
described  should  at  once  be  separated  from  the  others,  and 
put  in  cheaply  constructed  quarters,  so  that  the  latter  may 
be  burned  when  no  longer  required.  The  well  hogs  should 
be  removed  to  disinfected  quarters.  Give  all  the  hogs  the 
following  mixture,  recommended  by  Dr.  Salmon,  Chief  of 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry: 

Wood  charcoal i  lb. 

Sulfur I  '• 

Salt 2  lbs. 

Baking-soda 2    " 

Glauber's  salts. i  lb. 

Sodium  hyposuifite 2  lbs. 

Antimony  sulfid i  lb. 

This  should  be  given  in  soft  food  in  the  proportion  of  a 
teaspoonful  daily  to  a  two  hundred  pound  hog.  Remove 
all  refuse  from  the  pens  in  which  the  infected  hogs  were 
kept,  and  dig  out  the  old   soil,  put   in  fresh  earth,  disinfect 


VETERINARY    SCIENCE.  69 

with  carbolic  acid  solution,  and  allow  the  pens  to  remain 
vacant  for  at  least  six  months.  The  same  feeder  should 
not  attend  the  well  and  the  sick  hogs  unless  his  shoes  are 
changed  after  each  visit  to  the  sick  hogs.  The  bodies  of 
the  dead  hogs  should  be  thrown  into  a  rubbish  heap  and 
burned;  but  if  this  cannot  be  easily  carried  out,  a  long,  deep 
trench  should  be  dug,  and  when  the  carcases  are  thrown 
into  it  they  should  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  quicklime  and 
at  least  six  inches  of  earth.  When  the  disease  has  spent 
itself  or  has  been  effaced,  the  entire  mass  in  the  trench 
should  be  covered  with  six  inches  of  quicklime  and  at  least 
six  feet  of  earth.  The  place  selected  for  the  burial  of 
the  hogs  should  not  drain  towards  a  stream,  and  it  would 
be  better  to  fence  it.  The  dead  hogs  should  never  be  drawn 
over  the  ground,  and  the  wagon  used  should  be  washed 
with  a  disinfectant. 

During  the  last  few  years  the  sertirn  treatment  of  swine 
plague  and  hog  cholera  has  been  introduced  experimentally 
by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture.  Although  the  results  so  far  obtained  are  very 
promising,  further  studies  are  required  before  the  efficacy 
and  practicability  of  the  method  can  be  considered  proved. 
Farmers  whose  hogs  are  attacked  by  hog  cholera,  or  who 
fear  such  an  attack,  should  at  once  communicate  with  the 
Bureau  or  with  the  State  authorities  and  ascertain  what 
assistance  can  be  had. 

DIRECTIONS   FOR    MAKING    TUBERCULIN   TESTS. 

Animals  must  be  kept  in  as  nearly  a  normal  condition  as 
possible  during  the  test.  Before  injection  take  four  tempera- 
tures, about  two  hours  apart.  Inject  in  the  evening  at  about  nine 
o'clock;  begin  taking  temperatures  eight  to  ten  hours  after  the  in- 
jection and  continue  until  at  least  five  temperatures,  two  hours 
apart,  have  been  taken.  In  case  an  animal  shows  an  abnormally 
high  temperature  at  the  end  of  this  period  continue  taking 
temperatures  until  a  decided  drop  toward  the  normal  is  noted. 

A  rise  of  2  to  2.5  deg.  F.  above  the  average  normal  body  tem- 
perature, maintained  for  several  hours,  is  considered  a  positive 


70  AGRICULTURE. 

reaction,  especially  when  the  maximum  temperature  goes  above 
104  deg.  F, 

Precaution. — Water  before  beginning  the  temperature  readings 
the  first  day  of  the  test;  on  the  second  day  give  a  small  quantity 
(a  pailful  or  so)  in  barn,  if  necessary,  and  turn  stock  out  in  the 
afternoon  for  further  watering.  Large  quantities  of  cold  water 
reduce  the  temperature,  and  if  animals  are  watered  at  the  usual 
time  in  the  morning  on  the  day  following  the  injection,  marked 
errors  may  be  caused  in  the  test.     (Wis.  Exp.  Station.) 

lilST  OF  DISINFECTANTS. 

(Sternberg.) 

The  most  useful  agents  for  the  destruction  of  spore- 
containing  infectious  material  are: 

1.  Fire. — Comi)lete  destruction  by  burning. 

2.  Steam  under  Pressure,  105^  C.  (221°  F.,)  for  ten  minutes. 

3.  Boiling  in  Water  for  half  an  hour. 

4.  Cklorid  of  Lime  (should  contain  at  least  25  per  cent  of 
available  chlorin). — A  4  per  cent  solution. 

5.  Mercuric  Chlorid. — A  solution  of  1-500. 

For  the  destruction  of  infectious  material  which  owes 
its  infecting  power  to  the  presence  of  micro-organisms  not 
containing  spores,  any  of  the  following  agents  are  recom- 
mended: 

1.  Fire. — Complete  destruction  by  burning. 

2.  Boiling  in  7vater  for  ten  minutes. 

3.  Dry  Heat,  no"  C.  (230°  F.),  for  two  hours. 

4.  Chlorid  of  Lime. — A  2  per  cent  solution. 

5.  Solution  of  Chlorinated  Soda  (should  contain  at  least 
3  per  cent  of  available  chlorin). — A  10  per  cent  solution. 

6.  Mercuric  Chlorid. — A  solution  of  1-2000. 

7.  Carbolic  Arid. — A  5  per  cent  solution. 

8.  Sulfate  of  Copper. — A  5  per  cent  solution. 

9.  Chlorid  of  Zinc. — A  10  per  cent  solution. 

10.  Sulfur  Dioxid  (this  will  require  the  combustion  of 
betw^een  3  and  4  lbs.  of  sulfur  for  every  1000  cubic  feet 
of  air-space). — Exposure  for  twelve  hours  to  an  atmos- 
phere containing  at  least  4  volumes  per  cent  of  this  gas,  in 
presence  of  moisture. 


YETERINARY    SCIENCE.  71 

RUIZES    FOR    DISINFECTION   OF    STABLES. 

lu  Case  of  Appearance  of  Contagious  Diseases. 

(Tru.mbower.) 

1.  Have  all  loose  litter,  hay,  and  rubbish  removed  and 
burned. 

2.  Have  all  manure  removed  to  land  where  cattle  have  no 
access. 

3.  Have  all  feed-troughs,  hay-racks  and  all  woodwork 
thoroughly  cleaned  by  washing  with  hot  water  in  which  two 
ounces  of  carbolic  acid  to  each  gallon  of  water  are  dissolved. 

4.  Thoroughly  whitewash  the  whole  of  the  interior  of  the 
building  with  a  whitewash  containing  one  pound  of  chloride 
of  lime  to  each  four  gallons  of  water.  Enough  freshly 
burned  quicklime  should  be  added  to  make  the  wash  show 
where  applied.  Especially  should  this  be  applied  to  the 
sides  and  front  of  the  stalls,  feed-troughs  and  hay-racks 
(inside  and  outside). 

5.  All  rotten  woodwork  to  be  removed  and  burned,  and 
replaced  with  new. 

6.  All  buckets,  forks,  shovels,  brooms,  and  other  objects 
used  about  the  stable  to  be  washed  and  covered  with  the 
same  solution. 

7.  All  drains  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected 
with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  one  pound  to  four  gal- 
lons of  water. 

8.  In  cases  of  glanders,  all  harness,  poles,  and  shafts  of 
wagons,  neck-yokes  and  pole-straps  should  be  thoroughly 
washed  with  hot  water  and  soap,  and  afterwards  oiled  with 
carbolized  oil  (one  part  of  carbolic  acid  to  ten  of  oil).  Before 
applying  the  oil,  harness  should  be  hung  up  in  the  open  air 
for  one  week. 

REGULATIONS       FOR      THE       GOVERNMENT       OF 

Dairies  and  Dairy  Farms  in  the  District  t>l'  Colum- 
bia. 

Section  i. — No  building  shall  be  used  for  stabling  cows 
for  dairy  purposes  which  is  not  well  lighted,  ventilated, 
drained,  and  constructed. 


1^  AGRICULTURE. 

Sec.  2. — No  building  shall  be  used  for  siabling  cows  for 
dairy  purposes  which  is  not  provided  with  a  suitable  floor, 
laid  with  proper  grades  and  channels  to  immediately  carry 
off  all  drainage;  and  if  a  public  sewer  abuts  the  premises 
upon  which  such  building  is  situated,  they  shall  be  con- 
nected therewith  whenever,  in  the  opinion  of  the  health 
officer,  such  sewer  connection  is  necessary. 

Sec.  3. — No  building  shall  be  used  foi  stabling  cows  for 
dairy  purposes  which  is  not  provided  with  good  and  suffi- 
cient feeding-troughs  or  boxes,  and  with  a  covered  water- 
tight receptacle,  outside  of  the  building,  for  the  reception 
of  dung  and  other  refuse. 

Skc.  4. — No  water  closet,  privy,  cesspool,  urinal,  in- 
habited room,  or  workshop  shall  be  located  within  any 
building  or  shed  used  for  stabling  cows  for  dairy  purposes, 
or  for  the  storage  of  milk  or  cream,  nor  shall  any  fowl, 
hog,  horse,  sheep,  or  goat  be  kept  in  any  room  used  for 
such  purposes. 

Sec.  5. — The  space  in  buildings  or  sheds  used  for  stabling 
cows  shall  not  be  less  than  five  hundred  cubic  feet  for  each 
cow,  and  the  stalls  therefor  shall  not  be  less  than  four  feet 
in  width. 

Sec.  6. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  person  using  any 
premises  for  keeping  cows  for  dairy  purposes  to  keep  such 
premises  thoroughly  clean  and  in  good  repair  and  well 
painted  or  whitewashed  at  all  times. 

Sec.  7. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  person  using  any 
premises  for  keeping  cows  for  dairy  purposes  to  cause  the 
building  in  which  cows  are  kept  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned, 
and  remove  all  dung  from  the  pren\ises  so  as  to  prevent  its 
accumulation  in  great  quantities. 

Sec.  8. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  any  person  having  charge 
or  control  of  any  premises  upon  which  cows  are  kept  to 
notify  the  health  officer,  in  writing,  of  the  existence  of  any 
contagious  or  infectious  disease  among  such  cows,  within 
twenty-four  hours  of  the  discovery  thereof,  and  to  thor- 
oughly isolate  any  cow  or  cows  affected  or  which  may  rea- 
sonably be   believed   to   be    infected,  and  to  exercise   such 


VETERINARY    SCIENCE.  73 

other  precautions  as  may  be  directed,  in  writing,  by  the 
health  officer. 

Sec.  9. — Any  person  using  any  premises  for  keeping 
cows  for  dairy  purposes  shall  provide  and  use  a  sufficient 
number  of  receptacles  made  of  non-absorbent  materials, 
for  the  reception,  storage,  and  delivery  of  milk,  and  shall 
cause  them  at  all  times  to  be  cleansed  and  purified,  and 
shall  cause  all  milk  to  be  removed  without  delay  from  the 
rooms  in  which  the  cows  are  kept. 

Sec.  10. — Every  person  keeping  cows  for  the  production 
of  milk  for  sale  shall  cause  every  such  cow  to  be  cleaned 
every  day  and  to  be  properly  fed  and  watered. 

Sec.  II. — Every  person  using  any  premises  for  keeping 
cows  shall  cause  the  yard  used  in  connection  therewith  to 
be  provided  with  a  proper  receptacle  for  drinking  water 
for  such  cows;  none  but  fresh,  clean  water  to  be  used  in 
such  receptacle. 

Sec.  12. — Any  enclosure  in  which  cows  are  kept  shall  be 
graded  and  drained  so  as  to  keep  the  surface  reasonably 
dry  and  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  water  therein,  ex- 
cept as  may  be  permitted  for  the  purpose  of  supplying 
drinking  water;  no  garbage,  urine,  fecal  matter,  cr  similar 
substances  shall  be  placed  or  allowed  to  remain  in  such  en- 
closure, and  no  open  drain  shall  be  allowed  to  run  through  it. 

Sec.  13. — These  regulations  shall  apply  to  all  premises 
upon  which  cow's  milk  is  produced  for  sale. 

Sec.  14. — That  any  person  violating  any  of  these  regula- 
tions shall,  on  conviction  in  the  police  court  of  said  district, 
be  punished  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than 
ten  dollars  for  each  and  every  offense,  to  be  collected  as 
other  fines  and  penalties  are  collected. 

(See  also  p.  272,  Rules  and  Regulations  to  be  observed  in  the 
care  of  cows  and  the  handling  of  milk  shipped  to  the  City  of 
New  York.) 


74 


AGRICULTURE. 


IV.  FIELD    CROPS. 

QUANTITY   OF   SEED   REQUIRED  TO  THE   ACRE. 

(Waring.) 


Designation.  Ou^^'^^y 

Wheat I J  to  2    bu. 

Barley i^  to  2i  bu. 

Oats 2    to  4    bu. 

Rye I    to  2    bu. 

Buckwheat J  to  ij  bu. 

Millet I    to  i^  bu. 

Corn i  to  I    bu. 

Beans i     to  2    bu. 

Peas 2^  to  3^  bu. 

Hemp I    to  i^  bu. 

Flax. i  to  2    bu. 

Rice   2    to  2^  bu. 


Designation.  Oug*? 

Broom-corn. ...  i  to  i-J  bu. 

Potatoes 5  to  lo  bu. 

Timothy I2  to  24  qts. 

Mustard 8  to  20  qts. 

Herd  grass 12  to  16  qts. 

Flat  turnip 2  to    3  lbs. 

Red  clover 10  to  16  lbs. 

White  clover. .. .     3  to    4  lbs. 

Blue  grass 10  to  15  lbs. 

Orchard  grass. ..  20  to  30  lbs. 

Carrots 4  to    5  lbs. 

Parsnips 6  to    8  lbs. 


When  planted  in  rows  or  drills: 

Broom-corn i    to  i^  bu. 

Beans i^  to  2    bu. 

Peas i^  to  2    bu. 


Onions 4  to  5    lbs. 

Carrots 2  to  2^  lbs. 

Parsnips 4105    lbs. 

Beets 4  to  6    lbs. 


SEED    USED  PER    ACRE.     (McKerrow.) 


Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Rye 

Peas 

Buckwheat 

Beans 

Oats  &  peas,  i  Oats 
mixed  for  hay  I  Peas 

Flax 

Millet 

Corn 

Potatoes 


Drilled, 
Bus. 


2 


i^ 


Va 


Broad- 
cast, 
Bus. 


^}4 

2Vi 


^ 


i^toii^ 


Clover  (red) 

Clover  (^Alsike). . .. 
Clover  (white)  .    . . 
Clover  &  5  8  clover 
timothy  ( atimothy 

Timothy 

Orchard-grass 

Rape 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Beets 

Sugar  Beets 


Drilled, 
Lbs. 


i^ 


4 
20 


Broad- 
cast, 
Lbs. 

12 

4 
3 


S 
3 


FIELD    CROPS. 


75 


SEED    MIXTURES 


FOR    HAY    AND 
PASTURES 


PERMANENT 


111  Pounds  per  acre. 


Names  of  Grasses. 

I . 

Flint 

II. 

Law- 
son. 

III. 

For  Good 
Medium 

Soils. 
De  Laune 

IV. 

For  Wet 

Soils. 
De  Laun^ 

V. 

For 

Cha!l-y 

Soils. 

De  Laune 

VI 
For 

Perma- 
nent 

Lav\  ris. 
Flint. 

2 

6 

I 

2 
2 

2 

4 

10 

4 

3 
3 
2 

Orchard  grass 

Meadow  fescue 

2 
2 
2 

2 
2 

6 

3 

I 
I 

3 
8 

I 

2 

2 

Hard  fescue 

Sheep's  fescue 

Redtop   

4 
4 

2 
2 

3 

4 

Kentucky  blue  grass. 

Italian  rye  grass 

Perennial  rye  grass.., 

Timothy     

Rough  meadow  grass 
Wood  meadow  grass. 
Red  clover 

4 
4 
6 

3 

2 

3 
5 

6 
8 

3 
2 
2 

3 
4 
3 
3 

3 

3 
2 

I 
I 
I 
I 
14 
5 

I 
I 
I 

10 

2 
2 
I 

I 

2 

Perennial  red  clover. 
White  (Dutch)  clover 

Alsike 

Yellow  oat  grass 

2 

5 

I 

I 
I 
I 

7 
2 

li 
I 

I 

2 
3 

I 

Cock's-foot  

Crested  dog's-tail  ... 
Fiorin                   

Yarrow  

2 

3 

Cat's-tail     

Cow  grass 

40 

45 

41 

40 

38 

43 

For  the  Northwest  the  following  mixture  will,  according 
to  Shaw,  be  found  suitable: 

Timothy  4  lbs.,  blue  grass  3  lbs.,  redtop  2  lbs.,  orchard 
grass  2  lbs.,  meadow  fescue  i  lb.,  tall  oat  grass  i  lb., 
meadow  foxtail  i  lb.,  alsike  clovers  lbs.,  white  clover  2  lbs., 
lucern  (alfalfa)  2  lbs.,  yellow  clover  i  lb.,  total  22  lbs. 

And  for  the  States  east  of  Michigan  and  for  the  provinces 
of  Canada  eastward  of  Lake  Huron: 

Lucern  (alfalfa)  5  lbs.,  orchard-grass  4  lbs.,  meadow 
fescue  and  alsike  clover  3  lbs.  each,  tall  oat  grass,  timothy, 
meadow  foxtail,  and  white  clover  2  lbs.  each,  yellow  clover 
I  lb.;  total  24  lbs. 


'G 


AGUICUT/rUIlE. 


The  following  mixtures  of  seeds  are  sug'^ested  for 
meadows  and  for  pastures  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  : 

A.     Hay    Mixtures. 


No,  I. 

Pounds. 

Tall  oat  grass 70 

Red  clover 30 

^Sovv  35  to  40  lbs.  per  acre.) 


No.  2. 

Red  top 30 

Orchard  grass 40 

Meadow  fescue 20 

Red  clover 10 

(Sow  40  to  45   lbs.  per  acre.) 


No.  3. 

Pounds. 

Italian  rye  grass 20 

Orchard  grass 25 

Red  clover 10 

Tall  oat  grass 20 

Red  top 25 

(Sow  35  to  40  lbs.  per  acre.) 

No.  4. 

Timothy 40 

Red  top 40 

Tall  oat  grass.  .. 20 

(Sow  40  lbs.  per  acre.) 


B.     Pasture 

No.  I. 

Kentucky  blue  grass....    25 

White  clover 10 

Perennial  rye 30 

Red  fescue 10 

Red  top 25 

(Sow  35  lbs.  per  acre.) 

No.  2. 

Canada  blue  grass 5 

Red  clover 5 

Orchard  grass 5 

Tall  oat  grass 5 

Perennial  rye  grass 20 

Red  top 35 

(Sow  40  to  45  lbs.  per  acre.) 


]>Iixtures. 

No.  3.      For  wet  pastures. 

Red  top 35 

Alsike 20 

Creeping  bent 15 

Perennial  rye 3c 

(Sow  40  lbs.  per  acre.) 


No.  4.      For  light  sandy 
soils. 

Red  fescue 50 

Red  top 25 

Kentucky  blue  grass.  .  .      20 
White  clover .  .      5 

(.Sow  35  to  ^o  lbs.  per  acre.) 


FIELD     CROPS. 


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AGRICULTURE. 


THE    WEIGHT    AND    AVERAGE   C03IP0SITI0N  OF 
ORDINARY  CROPS  IN  POUNDS  PER  ACRE. 

(Warington.) 


Weight  of 
Crop. 

0 

H 

c 
0 

u 

J2 

3 
C/5 

0 

"O 

0 
(/) 

lbs. 

0  6 
2.0 

2.6 

I.I 
3-9 

5-0 

0.8 
4.6 

5-4 
0.2 

9.2 

5' 

0.6 
1-7 

2-3 

17.0 
7-5 

24.0 

22.8 
9.2 

oi 

8 

'J 

lbs. 

I.O 

8.2 
9.2 

1.2 
8.0 

9.2 

1.8 
9.8 

11.6 
0-5 

32-1 

90.1 

2.9 
26.3 

29.2 

25-5 
48.5 

74.0 

19.7 
22.7 

.2 

c 
bm 
a 

lbs. 

3-6 
3-5 

7-' 

4.0 
2.9 

6.9 

3-6 
51 

3.7 
3-4 

14.4 

28.2 

4.2 
5-7 

9.9 

5-7 
3-8 

9-5 

6.8 

2.4 

0 

1:2 

a" 

X! 
0- 

Ibs. 

14.2 
6.9 

21. 1 

16.0 
4-7 

20.7 

13.0 

6.4 

19.4 

10. 0 

8.0 
18.0 

12.3 

24.9 

22.8 

6.3 

29.1 

22.4 
10.7 

33-1 

16.9 
4.8 

c 

U 
lbs. 

0.1 
2.4 

2-5 

0.5 

3.6 

4.1 

0.5 

6.1 
6.6 

0.2 

14.6 
9.8 

I.I 

4-3 

5-4 

10.9 
II. 2 

22.1 

6.8 
8.3 

At 
Har- 
vest. 

Dry. 

i75 

Wheat : 
grain,  30  bu.. 
straw 

lbs. 

1,800 
3.158 

lbs. 

1,530 
2,653 

lbs. 

30 
142 

172 

46 
III 

157 

lbs. 

33 
15 

48 

35 
13 

48 

lbs. 

2.7 
51 

7.8 

2.9 

3-2 

6.1 

lbs. 

9-3 
19  5 

28.8 

9.8 
25-9 

35-7 

9.1 
37-0 

lbs. 

0.6 
96.3 

Total  crop.. 

4.958 

4,183 

96.9 

Barley  : 
grain,  40  bu.. 
straw 

2,080 
2.447 

1,747 
2,080 

II. 8 
56.8 

Total  crop.. 

4,527 

3.827 

68.6 

Oats  : 
grain,  45  bu.. 
straw 

1,800 
2,835 

4,725 

1,625 
2,353 

51 
140 

38 
17 

3-2 

4.8 

19.9 

65.4 

Total  crop . . 

3,978 

191 

22 
99 

55 

28 
»5 

43 

49 

102 

77 
29 

106 

8.0 

1.8 

5-7 
9-4 

4-4 

4-9 

9-3 

46.1 

6.5 
29.8 

36.3 

50.9 

83-4 

24-3 
42.8 

67.1 

108.6 
40.2 

1488 

85-3 

Maize  : 
grain,  30  bu.. 
stalks,  etc 

1.680 
2,208 

1,500 
1,877 

o.S 

Total  crop.. 

3,888 

3,377 

121 

203 

Meadow      hay, 
iJ4  tons 

3,360 

2,822 

56.9 

Red  clover  hay, 
2  tons 

4.480 

3,763 

258 

58 
99 

157 

7.0 

Beans : 
grain,  30  bu.. 
straw 

1,920 
2,240 

1.613 
1,848 

3.461 

0.4 
6.9 

Total  crop  . 

4,. 60 

7-3 

Turnips  : 
root,   17  tons. 
leaf 

38,080 
11,424 

3,126 
1. 531 

218 
146 

364 

63 
49 

192 

'5-2 

5-7 
20.9 

2.6 
51 

Total  crop.. 

49,504 

4.657 

7-7 

Swedes: 
root,  14  tons., 
leaf.. 

31.360 
4,704 

3,-349 
706 

163 
75 

70 
28 

14.6 
3.2 

63-3 
16.4 

3  « 
3-6 

Total  crop.. 

36,064 

4,055 

238 

98 

17.8* 

79.7 

32.0 

42.4 

9.2 

21.7 

I5-I 

-.7 

*  Calculated  from  a  single  analysis  only. 


FIELD    CROPS. 


81 


THE  WEIGHT    AND    AVERAGE    COMPOSITION   OF 
ORDINARY   CHOPS.— Coniinuec^. 


Weight  of 
Crop. 

V 

u 
3 

a,  ^ 

s 

lbs. 

426 
254 

680 
127 

26 

166 

192 

15 
42 

57 

20 
121 

141 

bD 
0 

u 

i^ 

lbs. 

87 
51 

138 
47 

10 

39 

49 

u 

3 

'a 

(A 

lbs. 

4-9 
9.1 

14.0 
2.7 

0! 

abs. 
222.8 

77-9 
300.7 

76.5 

4.2 

8.8 

13.0 

2-3 

4-3 
6.6 

3-6 
4-3 

7-9 

■c 
0 
t/) 

lbs. 

69.4 
49-3 

187.7 

3-8 

0.8 
1.6 

2-4 

0.2 
t  7 

1.9 

0.4 
15 

1.9 

6 
E 

lbs. 

159 
27.0 

42.9 

3-4 

12.9 
73-' 

86.0 

9.0 

16.8 

25.8 

8.2 
54-4 

62.6 

.3 

"(Jj 

dJ 
c 
b£ 

s, 

lbs. 
18  3 
24.2 

42.5 

6.3 

3-4 
10.9 

143 

1-5 
4  3 

5.8 

1.8 
6.2 

8.0 

u 

'u 

c  0 
B< 

lbs 

36.4 
16.5 

52.9 

21-5 

1-5 
9-3 

10.8 

I.O 

3-3 

4-3 

1-3 

5-7 

7.0 

a 
u 

lbs. 

42.5 
40.6 

83  I 
4-4 

At 
Har- 
vest. 

Dry. 

Mangolds: 
root,  22  tons., 
leaf 

lbs. 

49,280 
18.233 

lbs. 

5.914 
1,654 

7o68 

lbs. 
8.7 
9.2 

Total  crop.. 

67.513 

17.9 

Potato  : 
tubers,  6  tons 

13-440 

3.360 

2.6 

Beech: 

wood 

leaf  litter.   . . . 

2,822 
2.975 

2.2 

53-9 

T'l  produce. 

5.797 

56.1 

Scotch  pine: 
wood   

2,884 
2.845 

5.729 

0-5 
5.8 

leaf  litter 

T'l  produce. 

6.3 

Spruce  fir: 
wood          

3.064 
2,683 

2.9 
44  3 

leaf  litter 

— — 

T'l  produce. 

5.747 

47.2 

SOILING    CROPS    ADAPTED   TO    NORTHERN 
ENGLAND    STATES.     (Lindsev.) 
(For  10  cows'  entire  soiling.) 


NEW 


Kind. 


Rye   

Wheat 

Red  clover 

Grass  and    clo- 
ver  


Seed  per  Acre. 


2  bush . 


Vetch  and  oats. 


Peas  and  oats 


Barnyard  millet. . 

Soja    bean     (me- 
dium green) — 
Corn 


Hungarian 

Barley  and  peas  -J 


20  lbs 

}^  bu.  redtop. . 
I  peck  timothy 
lolbs.red  clover 
3  bush.  oats. . . . 
50  lbs.  vetch  . . . 

ij^bu.  Canada 
I  Jo  bu.  oats 


Time  of 
Seeding. 


peck 


18  quarts. 


I  bush 

i'/^  bu.  peas. 
i|^  bu    barley. 


Sept.  10-15 
Julyi5-Aug. 
^      Sept. 


April  20 

"       30 
"       20 

"       30 

May  10 

"     25 

"     20 

"     20 

,  "     30 
July  15 


Area. 


/^  acre 


Time  of  Cuttin; 


May  20- 
June    1- 

June  15- 


■May  30 
-June  15 
-June  25 


June  15— June  30 


June  25- 

July    10- 

June  25- 

July    10- 
1^  acre  July    2s- 
Aug.  xo- 


V6  acre 


Aug,  25- 
Aug.  25- 
Sept.  10- 
Sept.  20- 


r      Aug.    5         1  acre   Oct,     i- 


-July  10 

-July  20 

-July  TO 

-July  20 
-Aug.  10 
-Aug. 20 

-Sept. 15 
-Sept  ID 
-Sept. 20 
-Sept.  30 

Oct.  20 


82 


AaKirriTURE. 


TIME  OF  PLANTING   AND  FEEDING  SOILING 
CROPS.      (PuRi.rs) 


Kind  of  Fodder 


1.  Rye  fodder 

2.  Wheat  fodder 

3.  Clover 

4.  Grass  (from  grass-lands). 

5    Oats  and  peas 

6.       "       "        '*     


8  Hii'ifrarian  

Q.  Clove  rowen  vfioin  3).. 

10.  S'  j  1  b  ans 

1 1  L'ow  -poas      .... 

12  Rovvcii    grass    ifiom  grass 

laiidsj  

13.  Barley  and  peas   


Amount  ol        Approxi- 
Seed        !  mate  Time 
per  Acre  lof  Seeding. 


2j  to  3  bu.      Sept.  1 
■2]  to  3  bu.      Sept.  5-10 
20  ibs.  July  20-30 


2  l>u.  each 


■  ♦  Susheis 

I  hushel 
I  buslie. 


2  bu. each 


April  10 
■'      20 

■'      30 
June  1 

May  25 
June  5-10 


Aug.  5-10 


Approximate 
Timv.-  ot  Feediii] 


May  10-20 
May  20.  June  5 
June  5-15 
June  15-25 
June  25,  J<ily  ic 
July  10-20 

•'     20.  Aug.  I 
Aug.  T-io 

"     10-20 

"     20.  Sept    s 

Sept.  5-20 
20-30 
Oct.  1-30 


1  he  dates  given  in  the  tab  e  -.pply  to  Central  Connecticut  and  regions 
under  approximalely  similar  conditions. 


CRIP.^   l'\)ll    PAKTIV!.    SOILING    FOR  ILLINOIS 
DURl'iJ    MIDSUMMER.      (Fraser.) 


Kinds  of  F..idder. 


1.  Crn,  carlv,  sweet,  or  dent.  .  .  6  qts. 

2.  C^rn,  medium,  dent s 

.^.  L>w  peas i  bu. 

4.   S  <y  brans 

'■.   Oats  and  Canada  peas :  bu.  each 

6. '  "... 

7.   Rape  (Dwarf  Essex) |  4  lbs. 

second  sowing 4   " 

third  sowing 4    " 


Amount 

of  Seed 

per  Acre. 


Anprox. 
Time  of 
Seeding. 


Appro .X.  Time 
of  Feeding. 


May      I    July  i-Aug.  i 

"      15   Aug.  I -Sept.  30 

15  I     "     I-      "is 

"  .    15       "     I-      "    15 

April  15  ^  July  I -July  15 

May      I  1     "   15-Au'.?.     I 

I  j     "     I-     "      I 

June     I     Aug.  i-Sept.  i 

July   I       Sept.  I -Oct.  i 


REPLACING  WINTER-KILLED  CLOVER. 

The  foUowitig  brief  article  gives  a  list  of  forage  plants 
that  will  be  found  suitable  for  furnishing  green  feed  for 
cattle  and  other  farm  animals  in  regions  where  the  clover 
nas  been  winter-killed.  It  was  originally  published  as  a 
newspaper  bulletin  from  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station 
and  is  written  with  special  reference  to  conditions  in  the 
Northwestern  States. 

//02C'  to  :i^t  tJu-  Q.ii.kcst  Pasture. —  A  fiold  cf  oats  or  barley 
will  fuiiiish  the  quickest  j-astiire  it  is  possible  to  obtain, 
barley  beitig  a  little  earlier  ihati  oats.      Sow  oats  or  barley 


FIELD  CROPS.  83 

as  for  a  grain  crop,  and  \vhen  the  young  plants  are  a  few 
inches  high,  turn  in  the  stock  and  treat  the  field  as  though 
it  were  a  pasture.  If  the  cattle  do  not  g'-aze  Lhe  field 
evenly,  run  the  mower  over  the  patches  where  the  growth 
is  excessive.  By  keeping  the  growth  short  it  will  last 
much  longer  than  if  allowed  to  head  out.  It  is  recom- 
mended that,  as  an  experiment,  clover  and  timothy  seed 
be  sown  with  a  part  at  least  of  the  oats  or  barley,  in  the 
hope  of  securing  a  stand  for  next  season.  The  farmer  who 
can  pasture  his  oat  or  barley  field  and  get  a  crop  of  clover 
started  at  the  same  time  will  be  one  year  ahead.  This  rec- 
ommendation must  be  regarded  as  an  experiment,  but  it 
has  been  successfully  tried  in  a  number  of  cases. 

Oats  and  Peas, — Let  the  farmer  also  put  in  a  patch  of  oats 
and  peas.  Sow  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  peas  per  acre,  cover- 
ing three  or  four  inches  deep  on  light  soil,  and  one  or  two 
inches  on  heavy  soil.  After  these  are  planted  sow  or  drill 
the  oats  in  the  usual  manner.  Cut  the  green  forage  for  the 
cattle,  or  cure  for  hay. 

Millet. — For  winter  hay  sow  millet  or  Hungarian  grass 
from  the  loth  to  the  30th  of  June,  using  from  a  bushel  to  a 
bushel  and  a  half  of  seed  per  acre.  When  the  seed-heads 
are  coming  into  blossom,  cut  and  cure  for  hay.  Millet  or 
Hungarian  grass  will  yield  from  one  ton  to  two  and  a  half 
tons  of  good  quality  hay  per  acre.  Horses  should  not  be 
given  over  one  feed  of  millet  hay  per  day. 

Corn  Fodder. — Any  variety  of  corn  will  do  for  green  or 
dry  forage,  the  early  kinds  being  the  most  suitable  for 
early  fall  feed.  Sweet  corn  is  very  satisfactory  because  the 
stalks  are  soft  and  palatable.  Plant  in  hills  or  drills  just  thick 
enough  to  decrease  the  size  of  the  ears  to  about  half  their 
normal  size.  Begin  feeding  as  soon  as  the  ears  are  glaz- 
ing, and  continue  with  the  dry  forage  throughout  the  win- 
ter. From  three  to  six  tons  per  acre  of  winter  forage,  suit- 
able for  all  kinds  of  farm  stock,  can  be  secured  from  a  corn 
crop  grown  on  good  land.     (Henry.) 


84 


AGRICULTURE. 


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FIELD    CROPS. 


85 


CYLINDRICAL   SILOS. 

Approximate    Capacity   of    Cylindrical    Silos    for    Well- 
matured   Corn   Silage,   in   Tons.     (King.) 


1^ 

10 

Inside  Diameter  of  Silo,  reet. 

]  2 

14 

15 

16 

18 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

20 

26 

38 

51 

59 

!  67 

85 

105 

115 

127 

138 

151 

16^ 

177 

21 

28 

40 

55 

63 

;  72 

91 

112 

123 

135 

148 

161 

175 

189 

22 

30 

43 

59 

67 

77 

97 

120 

132 

145 

158 

172 

187 

202 

2  3 

32 

46 

62 

72 

82 

103 

128 

141 

154 

169 

184 

199 

216 

24 

34 

49 

06 

76 

87 

no 

135 

149 

164 

179 

195 

212 

229 

25 

36 

52 

70 

81 

,  90 

116 

143 

158 

173 

190 

206 

224 

242 

26 

38 

55 

74 

85 

1  97 

123 

152 

168 

184 

201 

219 

237 

257 

27 

40 

58 

78 

90 

103 

130 

160 

177 

194 

212 

231 

251 

271 

28 

42 

61 

83 

95 

108 

137 

169 

186 

204 

223 

243 

264 

285 

29 

45 

64 

88 

100 

114 

144 

178 

196 

215 

235 

265 

278 

300 

3° 

47 

68 

93 

105 

119 

r5i 

187 

206 

226 

247 

269 

292 

315 

31 

49 

70 

96 

1 10 

125 

158 

19s 

215 

236 

258 

282 

305 

330 

32 

51 

73 

lOI 

115 

'^'  , 

106 

205 

226 

248 

271 

295 

320 

346 

36 

64 

75 

105 

121 

130 

150 

139 
165 

155  1 

180 

190 

235 

279 

40 

228 

KELATIOX  OF  HORIZONTAL  FEEDING  AREA  AND 
Nl  MHER  OF  COWS  KEPT,  FOR  SILOS  24  AND 
30     FEET     DEEP.      (King.) 


Feed  for  240  Days. 

Feed  for  180  Days. 

No.  of 

Silo         Silo 
24  Feet  Deep.  30  Feet  Deep. 

Silo 
24  Feet  Deep. 

Silo 
30  Feet  Deep. 

Cows. 

Rate 
1.2  In.  Daily. 

Rate 
1.5  In.  Daily. 

Rate 
1.6  In.  Daily. 

Rate 
2  In.  Daily. 

Tons. 

Inside  ^ 
Diam.l  ■^"'^^• 

Inside 
Diam. 

Tons. 

Inside 
Diam. 

Tons. 

Inside 
Diam. 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

43 

45 

50 

6d 

7:) 

8^ 

9^ 

T  -  1 

48 

72 

96 

120 

144 
168 
192 
216 
240 
288 
336 
384 
432 
480 

Feet. 

12 
15 
17 
19 
21 
22 

24 
26 

27 
29 
32 

34 
36 
38 

48 
72 
96 
120 
144 
168 
192 
21  6 
240 
288 
336 
384 
432 
480 

Feet. 
10 
12 

14 
16 
18 
19 
20 
21 
23 
25 
27 
29 
30 
32 

36 

54 

72 

90 

108 

126 

144 

162 

180 

216 

252 

288 

324 

360 

Feet. 
10 
13 
15 
16 
18 
19 
21 
22 
23 
25 
27 
29 
31 
33 

36 

54 

72 

90 

108 

126 

144 

162 

180 

216 

252 

288 

324 

360 

Feet. 
9 
1 1 
I  2 
14 
15 
16 
iS 
19 
20 

21 
23 
25 
26 
28 

86 


AGRICULTURE. 


RELATION    BETWEEN    SIZE     OF    SILOS    AND    NUMBER 
OF   COWS   THEY   WILL  KEEP. 


Dimensions. 

Capacity,  Tons. 

Acres  to  Fill, 

15  Tons  to 

Acre. 

Cows  it  Will 

Keep  6  Months, 

40  lbs.  Feed  per 

Day. 

lo  X  20 

28 

2 

8 

12  X  20 

4P 

3, 

1 1 

12X24    • 

49 

3l 

13 

12X28 

60 

4 

IS 

14X  22 

61 

4^ 

17 

14X  24 

67 

4* 

19 

14X28 

83 

5* 

22 

14X30 

87 

6 

23 

16X24 

93 

6i 

24 

16X26 

97 

7 

26 

16X30 

119 

8 

29 

18X30 

ISI 

rol 

37 

18X36 

180 

I2i 

45 

NUMBER     OF     PLANTS     FOR     AN     ACRE     OF     GROUND. 


Distance  apart,  Number  of 

Inches.  Plants. 

3X3 696,960 

4X4 392,040 

6X6 174,240 


9X9.. 
Feet. 
iXi.  . 
liXii. 
2X1.. 
2X2.  . 

2^X2^. 

3X1.. 

3X2.. 

3X3- ■ 

3iX3i- 


77,440 

43,560 

19,360 

21,780 

10,890 

6,960 

14.520 

7,260 

4,840 

3,555 

4X1 10,890 


4X2. 
4X3.. 
4X4.- 
4+X4i- 
5X1.. 
5X2.. 
5X3.. 
5X4.. 
.5X5.. 


5,445 
3,630 
2,722 
2,151 
8,711 
4,356 
2  904 
2,178 
1,742 
1. 41 7 


Distance  apart,  Number  of 

Feet.  Plants. 

6X6    1,210 

6iX6i- 1,031 


7X7.. • 
8X8.  .. 
9X9.. • 

10  X 10  .  . 

iiXii.  . 

12X12.  . 

13X13-  • 

14X  14-  • 

15X15.. 

16X  16.  . 
i6+Xi6i. 

17X17.. 

18X18.  . 

19X  19-  • 

20  X  20. . 

25X25.. 

30X30.  . 

33X33.  ■ 

40  X  40 . , 

50X50. . 

60X60. , 

66X66., 


881 
680 
537 
435 
360 
302 

257 
222 

193 

170 

160 

150 

134 

120 

108 

69 

48 

40 

27 

17 

12 

10 


FIELD   CHOPS. 


87 


NUMBER  OF  HILLS  OR  PLANTS  ON  AN  ACRE  OF 

land,  for  any  distance  apart,  from  lO  in.  to  6  ft., 
the  lateral  and  longitudinal  distances  being  un- 
equal.    (Waring.) 


1  V 

lO 

in. 

12 
in. 

15 
in. 

18 
in. 

20 
in. 

2  ft. 

^}4 

ft. 

3  ft. 

3V^ 
ft. 

4  ft. 

ft. 

1 

5  ft. 

f 

6  ft. 

in. 

lO 

62726 

12 

52272 

43560 

15 

41817 

34848 

27878 

i8 

^H^a 

29040 

23232 

19360 

20 
ft. 

2 

31363 

26136 

20908 

17424 

15681 

26136 

21780 

17424 

14520 

13068 

10890 

2^ 

20908 

17424 

13939 

11616 

10454 

8712 

6969 

3 

17424 

14520 

11616 

9680 

8712 

7260 

5808 

4840 

3H 

M935 

12446 

9953 

8297 

7467 

6223 

4976 

4148 

3565 

4 

1^068 

10890 

8712 

7260 

6534 

,')445 

4356 

3630 

^ili 

2722 

aV^ 

1 1616 

9680 

7744 

6453 

5808 

4840 

3872  3226 

2767 

2420 

2151 

5 

10454 

8712 

6969 

5808 

5227 

4356 

3484  2004 

2489 

2178 

I9S6 

1742 

5^ 

9504 

7920 

6336 

5280 

4752 

3960 

316S  2640  2263 

1980 

1760 

I5H4 

1440 

6 

8712 

7260 

5808 

4840 

4356 

3630 

2904  2420  2074 

1865 

1013 

1452 

1320  I2IO 

YIELD    OF   A  GOOD    CROP   OF  FAR3I   PRODUCTS 
PER   ACRE.     CV^ARious  Autuoiuties.) 

Oats 50  bus. 

Potatoes 200    ' ' 


Alfalfa 4  tons 

Barley 50  bus. 

Beans,  field 20    " 

Buckwheat 20    " 

Cabbage 3  tons 

Clover 2h    " 

Corn  (shelled) 60  bus. 

Cotton I  bale 

Cowpea 15  bus. 

Field  peas 20    " 

Flax 15    " 

I  lay 2  tons 

Mangels 24    " 

Millet -i    " 


Rape 20  tons 

Rice 50  bus. 

Rutabagas 25  tons 

Rye 25  bus. 

Sorghum 10  tons 

Sugar  beets 15    " 

Sugar-cane 20    " 

Sweet  potatoes 200  bus. 

Tobacco 1 200  lbs. 

Turnips 20  tons 

Wheat  (spring) 25  bus. 

Wheat  (winter) 3°    " 


88 


AGRICULTURE. 


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HORTICULTURE. 


89 


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00 


AGRICULTURE. 


DISTANCES  APART  FOR  FRUIT  TREES, 

Time  Required  to  Bear  Fruit,  and  Longevity.    (Bailey4 


Apples 

"      dwarf... 
Blackberry 

Currant 

Gooseberry 

Orange  and  j 
lemon       f . 

Peach 

Pears 

Persimmon 

P'um 

Raspberry 

Strawberry 


Usual  Distances. 


30  to  40  ft.  each  way. 

10  ft.  each  way 

4x  7  to  6x  8  ft 

4x5  feet 

4x5  feet , 


25  to  30  ft.  each  way. 

16  to  20  ft.  each  way. 

20  to  30  ft.  each  way. 

20  to  25  ft.  each  way. 
16  to  20  ft.  each  way. 

3x6  feet 

I  X  3  or  4  feet 


Time  Required  to 
Bear. 


3  yrs.    Good   crop  in 
about  10  years 


I  yr.  Good  crop  in 
2-3  years 

I  yr.  Good  crop  in 
2-3  years 

1  yr.  Good  crop  in 
2-3  years 

2-3  yrs.  Good  crop 
2-3  years  later 

2  yrs.    Good   crop  in 

4  years  

3  or  4  yrs.  Fair  crop 
in  6-12  years 

I  to  3  yrs 

3  yrs.      Good  crop  in 

5  to  6  years 

I  yr.      Good   crop  in 

2  or  3  years 

I  yr.  Heaviest  crop 
usually  in  2  years. . . 


Average 
Profitable 
Longevity 
under  high 

Culture. 


25-40  yrs. 

8-12  yrs. 

20  years. 

20  years. 

50  or  more. 

8-12  yrs 

50-75  yrs, 

25-40  ys. 
20-25  ys. 

8-12  yrs. 
3  years. 


TIME  OF  GER3IINATIOX  OF  VEGETABLE   SEEDS 
AND   MATURITY  TABLE.     (Morse.) 


Dean , 

Beet , 

Cabbage , 

Carrot , 

Cauliflower.  . . 

Celery , 

Com  (sweet). , 
Cucumber. 

Endive , 

Lettuce , 

Melon,  water. 
"        musk. 


Time 

of  Ger-' Maturity 
mina-     Table, 
tion 


Days. 
5-10 
7-10 
5-ro 

12-20 
S-io 

10-20 
5-8 
6-10 
5-10 
6-8 


Days. 
40-60 
40-50 
90-115 
90—1 10 


150—160 
65-90 
55-75 


65-75 
125-150 
125-150 


Onion.  . 

Parsley. 

Parsnip. 

Pea.  .  .  . 

Pepper.  , 

Radish. 

Salsify.  . 

Spinach. 

Squash. 

Tomato. 

Turnip.  . 


Time 
of  Ger-  Maturity 


mma- 
tion. 


Days. 
7-10 


10—20 
6-10 

ro-14 
3-6 
7-1  2 


6-1  2 
4-8 


Table. 


Days. 
130-150 

90-120 
I  20-150 

40-90 
140-160 

20-30 


60-80 
I  20-150 
I lo-i 20 

60-75 


HORTICULTURE.  91 

AVERAGE  YIELDS  PER  ACRE  OF  VARIOUS 
CROPS.      (Bailey.) 

Apples A  tree  20  to  30  years  old  may  be  expected 

to   yield   from    25  to  40  bus.  every  alter- 
nate year. 

Artichoke 200  to  300  bus. 

Beans,    green    or 

snap 75  to  120  bus. 

Bean,  Lima.    ...     75  to  100  bus.  of  dry  beans. 

Beet 400  to  700  bus. 

Carrots 400  to  700  bus. 

Corn. 50  to  7S  bus.,  shelled. 

Cranberry lOO  to  300  bus. ;  qoo  bus.  have  been  reported. 

Cucumber About  150,000  fruits  per  acre. 

Currant .      100  bus. 

Egg-plant I  or  2  large  fruits  to  the  plant  for  the  large 

sorts  like  New  York  purple,  and  from  3 
to  8  fruits  for  the  smaller  varieties. 

Gooseberry 100  bus. 

Grape 3    to    5    tons.     Good    raisin    vineyards    in 

California,    15    years   old,    will    produce 
from  10  to  12  tons. 

Horse-radish. ...     3  to  5  tons. 

Kohlrabi 500  to  1000  bus. 

Onion,  from  seed     300  to  800  bus.;  600  bus.  is  a  large  average 
yield. 

Parsnip 500  to  800  bus. 

Pea.  green,  in  pod     100  to  150  bus. 

Peach ,.     In  full  bearing  a  peach-tree  should  produce 

from  5  to  10  bus. 

Pear A  tree  20  to  25  years  old  should  give  from 

25  to  45  bus. 

Pepper 30,000  to  50,000  fruits. 

Plum 5  to  8  bus.  may  be   considered   an  average 

crop  for  an  average  tree. 

Potato 100  to  300  bus. 

Quince 200  to  400  bus. 

Raspberry        and 

blackberry. ...     50  to  100  bus. 

Salsify 200  to  300  bus. 

Spinach 200  barrels. 

Strawberry. ....     75  to  250  or  even  300  bUB. 

Tomato 8  to  16  tons. 

Turnip 600  to  1000  bus. 


92  AGRICULTURE. 

A    C03IBINED    FRUIT    AXD    VEGETABLE    GARDEN. 

(CORBETT.) 

The  following  plan  is  suggested  for  a  combined  fruit  and 
vegetable  garden  for  a  farm  or  city  home  on  a  lot  lOoXSo  ft., 
the  fruit  garden  occupying  an  area  of  60X80  ft.  and  the  vegetable 
garden  an  area  of  40X80  ft. 

A.  Fruit-hearing  Plants  that  can  be  grown  on  an  area  of  60X80 
ft.: 

32  grape-vines,  dispersed  at  intervals  of  10  ft.  around  the  entire 
garden. 

3  rows  of  dwarf  pears,  each  containing  6  trees  (rows  Nos.  2, 
10,   14). 

I  row  of  peaches,  6  trees  (row  Xo.  4), 

I  row  of  cherries,  6  trees  (row  No.  8). 

I  row  of  dwarf  apples,  6  trees  (row  No.  6). 

I  row  of  plums,  6  trees  (row  No.  12). 

1  row,  20  specimens  blackberries  (row  No.  i). 

2  rows,  40  specimens  black-caps  (rows  Nos.  3  and  5). 

2  rows,  40  specimens  red  raspberries  (rows  Nos.  7  and  9). 

3  rows,  300  specimens  strawberries  (rows  Nos.  11,  13,  and  15). 

B.  Vegetable  Plants  that  can  be  grown  on  an  area  of  40X80  ft. : 
I  row,  \  row  rhubarb,  \  row  asparagus  (occupying  4  ft.). 

I  row,  salsify  (15  ft.). 

1  row,  parsnips  (i^  ft.). 

2  rows,  beets  (3  ft.). 

1  row,  egg-plant,  plants  set  18  in.  apart,  2  doz.  (3  ft.). 

2  rows,  tomatoes,  plants  set  2  ft.  apart,  2  doz.  (6  ft.). 

1  row,  summer  squash,  12  hills,  3  ft.  apart  (3  ft.), 

2  rows,  cucumber,  24  hills,  3  ft.  a]"irt  (i  ft.). 

2  rows,  early  cabbage,  4  doz.  plants,  set  18  in.  apart  (4  ft.). 
2  rows,  late  cabbage,  4  doz.  plants,  set  18  in.  apart  (4  ft.). 

1  row-,  early  celery,  6  doz.  plants,  set  6  in.  apart  (2  ft.). 

8  rows,  peas,  plant  in  double  rows,  4  in.  apart;  follow  by  6 
rows,  late  celery,  36  plants  (16  ft.). 

2  rows,  lima  beans,  4  doz.  hills,  18  in.  apart  (4  ft.). 

6  rows,  bunch  beans;   in  succession  sow  seeds  in  drills,  placing 


HORTICULTURE. 


93 


seeds  about  6  in.  apart  in  the  row;  follow  by  late  cabbage, 
turnips,  or  spinach  (12  ft.). 

2  rows,  radishes,  4  sowings,  planted  in  double  rows  6  in. 
apart  (3  ft.). 

2  rows,  lettuce,  2  sorts,  adapted  for  early  and  late  use  (3  ft.). 

I  row,  parsley  and  pepper  grass  (i^  ft.). 

The  space  occupied  by  the  last  three  plants  may  be  given  over 
to  winter  squashes  by  planting  these  before  other  crops  are  off 
the  ground.     (See  Farmers'  Bull.  No.  154.) 


A  VEGETABLE  FORCING  CALENDAR.   (Wood.) 


Night 
Tern. 
°  F. 

Day 
Tem. 
°  F. 

From 
Seed. 

Soil. 

Notes. 

Tomato.  . 

60-65 

75 

5  mos. 

Rich      loose 
loam. 

Transplant  twice  into 
pots,  hand  pollinate, 
grow  on  benches. 

Lettuce.  . 

45-50 

55-65 

10-12  w. 

Open,  porous, 
dry  on  sur- 
face. 

Solid  or  ground  beds 
best,  transplant. 

Parsley. .  . 

45-50 

55-65 

8  wks. 

Open,      well 
drained. 

Best  from  spring-sown 
plants;  transplant 
and  cut  back. 

/Vater- 

45-50 

55-65 

4-6  wks. 

Moist,    cool 

Not    at    all    particular. 

cress 

uniformly 

grow  under  benchany- 
where. 

Pepper- 

45-50 

55-65 

3-4  wks. 

Well  drained 

Grow  in  beds  with  cau- 

cress 

cool  soil. 

liflower,  lettuce,  etc. 

Radishes. 

45-50 

55-65 

5-6  wks. 

Warm,  quick 
no  coarse 
manure. 

Rapid  growth  essential; 
no  old  manure. 

Beans.  ..  . 

60-65 

70-80 

6-8  wks. 

"Quick,"  i.e., 
loam  and  i 
thoroughly 

rotted  man'e 

Best  as  catch  crop  be- 
tween melons  and  to- 
matoes. 

Peas 

45-50 

55-65 

70-So  d. 

Solid  beds  of 
rich,  sandy 
.oil. 

Do  not  yield  heavily, 
and  are  useless  after 
April  I. 

Cauli- 

50 

60-65 

4-5  mos. 

Solid  bed  gar- 

Transplant once,  abun- 

flowet 

den  loam  and 
i  rotten  ma- 
nure. 

dance  of  air  and  free 
drainage,  yet  plenty 
of  water. 

Mush- 

50-60 

50-60 

6-8  wks. 

Moist  (not 

Grow  under  benches,  or 

rooms 

wet)  manure, 

4  parts,  loam, 

I  part. 

anywhere  that  even 
temperature  can  be 
had. 

Asparagus 

50-55 

60-70 

2-3  wks. 

Pack  under 
benches  in 
any  material. 

3-4  years'  roots  from 
field;  crop  depends 
on  vigor. 

Spinach.  . 

45-50 

55-65 

8-10  w. 

Open,  porous, 
well  enriched. 

Grow  as  a  catch  crop 
between  caulittuwer, 
etc. 

94 


AGRICULTURE. 


SEASONS      OF     VARIETIES      OF     APPLES      IX     VARIOUS 
STORAGES.      (Beach  and  Clark.) 


Alexander  * 

Baldwint 

t., 

Esopus,  Spitzenburg  t 
+ 
Falla water  * 

t 

< '  + 

Fall  Pippin**.!  '.'.'.'.'.'. 
Fameuse  * 

t 

Hubbardston  * 

Jonathan  J 

Maiden  Blush  * 

Mclntush  X 

Northern  Spy  X 

R.  I.  Greening  * 

"         t 


Season  in 


Chemi- 
cal Cold 
Storage 


Nov. 

June  1 5 

May 

June  15 

March 

April 

Mar.  30 

May 

Nov. 

Dec. 

April  I 

March 

March 

Nov. 

Jan. 

April 

Feb. 

April 


Ice 

Storage 


Nov. 
May  I 
April 
June  I 


March 
Mar.  20 


Nov. 
Dec. 
Feb.  I  s 
Feb. 


Nov. 


March 

Feb. 

March 


Cellar 
Storage 


Oct. 

April  I 

March 

May  I 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Mar.  1 

Jan. 

Oct. 

Oct. 

Feb.  I 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Feb. 

Dec. 

Feb. 


Difference  in  Season 
between 


Cellar 

Ice 

and 

and 
Ice 

Chem- 

ical 
Stor- 

Stor- 

age. 

age. 

Mos. 

Mos. 

I 

0 

I 

li 

I 

I 

I 

i 

2 

I 

§ 

i 

I 

0 

2 

0 

i 

i^ 

2 

I 

I 

0 

I 

I 

2 

0 

I 

I 

Ccllai 
and 

Chem- 
ical 

Stor 
age. 


Mos. 

I 

2 

2 
3 
I 

4 


*,  t,  X,  Reports  of  Chicago,  Minneapolis,  and   New  York  Commission 
men,  respectively. 


PACKAGES    USED    IN    SHIPPING     FRUIT.     (Waugh  ) 


Fruit. 

Package. 

Approximate  Cost. 

Apple 

Barrel,  100  quarts,  or  3  bushels  .  .  . 
Boxes   various  sizes        

$25  the  100 
Variable 

Slat  crate,  mostly  half  bushel 

Basket    mostly  bushel      

$4.50  the  100 

$1  to  Si. 2 5  a  doz. 

Peach  

Delaware  basket     

S2  to  $3  the  100 

Michigan  basket,  one-fifth  bushel  .  . 
Six-basket  carrier            

$3  the  TOO 

S7  to  $10  the  TOO 

Pear 

Barrel    ^  bushels 

$25  the  100 

Half-barrel    i^  bushels     

$15  to  S20  the  100 

Plum 

Boxes  and  baskets  of  various  kinds 

Grape  basket,  10  pounds 

Six-basket  carrier        

S2.50  the  TOO 
$7  to  $10  the  100 

HORTICULTURE, 


95 


PACKAGES     USED    IX     SHIPPING    FRUIT— Con^V./r? 


Fruit. 


Package. 


Approximate  Cost. 


Cherry 


Quince. 


Berries 


Strawberry  quart  boxes  and  crates. 


5-pouncl  grape  basket 

Slat  crn,te,  a  bushel 

'  '  '  '  h^  '  ' 

"  "  I  " 

Baskets    in    various    styles.     Also 

barrels. 
Quart  bo.xes  in  crates 


Quart  boxes,  $:,  to 
$3  the  looo;  i6- 
qit.  crates,  $5  to  $6 
the  100 


S3  the  100 
S4.50  the  100 
S7  the  100 


Quart   boxes,   $2  to 

$3  the  1000 
i6-qt.   crates,  $5   to 

$6  the  100 
24-qt.  crates,  $7  to 

$15  the  100 


RELATION  OF  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY, 

Dry  Matter,  and  Starch  Content  of  Potatoes. 

(WoLFf'  ) 


Spec. 
Grav. 

Dry 

Sub- 
stance. 

Starch 
Con- 
teiii. 

Spec. 
Gr.iV. 

Dry 

Sub- 
stance. 

Starch 
Con- 
tent. 

Spec. 
G  rav. 

Dry 

Sub- 
stance. 

Starch 
Con- 
tent. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Perct. 

Per  ct. 

f  .o^o 

19.7 

13  9 

1 .  107 

25  5 

19.7 

I  T34 

31-3 

25-5 

08  [ 

19.9 

14   I 

.108 

25.7 

19.9 

•  135 

3'-5 

25  7 

082 

20. 1 

M-3 

.  109 

25-9 

20. 1 

.■36 

31-7 

25-9 

085 

20  3 

14.5 

1 .  110 

26  I 

20.  3 

•  137 

3t-9 

26.  I 

.084 

V0.5 

'4-7 

.III 

26  3 

20.5 

13B 

32.1 

2b. 3 

08  s 

20.7 

14.9 

.112 

26.5 

20  7 

•  139 

32  ■  3 

26  5 

080 

20 -9 

i^   I 

•'13 

26  7 

20.9 

T.  140 

32  5 

26  7 

087 

21   2 

IS    4 

.114 

36  9 

21   I 

.  141 

32.8 

27.0 

088 

21.4 

15.6 

.X15 

27  2 

21.4 

.1.(2 

33.0 

27.2 

.o8g 

2T  .'^ 

>5  8 

.116 

27.4 

21.6 

•M3 

33  2 

27-4 

1.090 

21.8 

16. c 

.117 

27.6 

21.3 

■U4 

3^  4 

27  6 

.091 

22  .0 

16  2 

.118 

V7   8 

22.0 

.'45 

3<  0 

27  8 

eg  2 

22.2 

16  4 

.119 

28.0 

22.2 

.146 

--'-,  s 

28.0 

.003 

22.4 

16  6 

1 .  120 

28.3 

22.5 

.147 

34.1 

28  3 

094 

22    7 

16  9 

1 21 

28.5 

22.7 

.148 

34-3 

28  5 

.095 

22  .Q 

17    I 

1       '^2 

28.7 

22.9 

.149 

34-5 

.8.7 

.090 

23     I 

'7-3 

123 

28.9 

23  » 

t .  150 

34-7 

28.9 

■'>97 

23  3 

17   5 

.124 

29.  r 

23-3 

•151 

34-9 

29.1 

.098 

23 -5 

17   7 

125 

20.3 

23-5 

.152 

35-1 

29  3 

.099 

23  7 

17  9 

1^6 

29 . 5 

23-7 

•'53 

3S-4 

29  6 

.  ion 

24  0 

t8  2 

.127 

29  8 

24.0 

•  >  54 

3^  6 

29  8 

.  I  <.'  r 

24  2 

18   4 

1          .23 

30  0 

24.2 

•'55 

35  8 

30.0 

:o.» 

24  4 

18.6 

-  '2-) 

30.2 

24.4 

.156 

36.0 

30. a 

.103 

24.0 

18  8 

I  .  1  30 

30.4 

24.6 

•157 

36  2 

30    4 

.104 

24. S 

IQ   0 

•J3> 

30.(3 

24.8 

.158 

3^.4 

30.6 

.105 

25  0 

ig.2 

.132 

30.8 

25.0 

•159 

36  6 

30.8 

ICO 

25.2 

19  4 

•133 

31.0 

25.2 

1. 160 

.36.9 

31.x 

96 


AGRICULTUKE. 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITY,    SUGAR   CONTENT,    AND 
BOILING-POINT   OF   MAPLE  SIRUP. 

(Cooke  and  Hills.) 


1 

1 
> 

u 

0 

mate 
nt   of 
ugar. 

2I 

U 

<u 

a 

is 

•■•^  *-» 

ui  0 

.=  wco 

rt  0 

c 

i,  c^ 

CO 

X  "  n. 

^.2 
.0 

13  a 

Q 

Q 

< 

H 

05 

25 

1.205 

44.9 

41 

215.0°  F. 

To.olbs. 

68 

26 

I  215 

46.8 

43 

215. 1 

10. 1 

72 

27 

1.226 

48.7 

45 

215-3 

10.2 

75 

28 

1.236 

50-5 

47 

215  6 

10.3 

78 

29 

1.246 

52.4 

49 

215-9 

10.4 

82 

30 

1-257 

54-3 

51 

216.2 

10.5 

85 

31 

1.268 

56.2 

53 

216.6 

10. 6 

88 

32 

1.279 

58.1 

54 

217.0 

10.7 

90 

33 

1 .  290 

60  0 

56 

217.4 

10.7 

93 

34 

1.302 

62.0 

58 

218. 1 

10.8 

97 

35 

»-3»3 

63.9 

60 

218.6 

10.9 

100 

36 

1-325 

65.8 

62 

219-5 

II. 0 

103 

37 

1-337 

67.8 

64 

220.3 

II. I 

107 

38 

1-350 

69.8 

66 

221 .2 

11 .2 

no 

39 

I   362 

71.8 

68 

222.0 

II-3 

"3 

40 

1-374 

73-7 

70 

223.2 

II. 4 

117 

41 

I   387 

75-7 

72 

224.5 

II. 6 

120 

42 

1.400 

77-7 

74 

226.0 

H.7 

123 

43 

1-415 

79  8 

75 

227.8 

II. 8 

125 

44 

1.428 

81.8 

77 

229.7 

II. 9 

128 

45 

1.442 

83-9 

79 

231.8 

12.0 

132 

46 

1-457 

86.0 

81 

234.0 

12. 1 

13s 

47 

1. 471 

88.1 

83 

236.3 

12.3 

t38 

48 

1.486 

90.2 

85 

238-7 

12.4 

142 

"  The  per  cents  of  sugar  given  are  calculated  for  a  fairly 
good  sirup.  The  relative  values  in  the  last  column  are 
based  on  these  per  cents,  but  will  be  nearly  the  same  for 
all  except  the  poorest  of  sirups.  The  relative  value  is 
made  use  of  as  follows:  A  weight  of  11  pounds  per  gallon, 
and  35°  Baume  is  taken  as  the  standard;  dividing  the 
weight  of  the  sirup  by  11  gives  the  number  of  standard 
gallons;  multiplying  the  price  that  is  to  be  paid  for  11- 
pound  sirup  by  the  relative  value  figure,  and  dividing  by 
100,  gives  the  price  to  be  paid  per  standard  gallon. 

"£xamp/e ;  If  7$  cents  a  gallon  is  to  be  paid  for  ii-pound 


HORTICULTURE. 


97 


sirup,    how  much  should  be  paid    for  671   pounds  of    sirup 
testing  31°  by  the  Baume  hydrometer? 
671  -r-  II  =:  61  standard  gallons. 

75  X  88  -T-  100  =  66  cents  per  gallon. 

61  X  66  =  $41.26,  price  to  be  paid." 


WEIGHT    OF    SUGAR   OBTAINED   FI103I   100   LBS. 
OF    3IAPLE   SIRUP 

Weighing  11  lbs.  to  the   Gallon,  Mhen  Sugared  Off  at 
Different  Temperatures.      (Cooke  and  Hu.ls.) 


^ 

^ 

^ 

^j 

0)  tuc 

^1 

brj 

J3 

<U   3 

V:   3 

♦-.  3 

lU    3 

1^  3 

*j  3 

Temp 
ofS 
Off. 

.CO 

>   ° 

< 

<UC/3 

Temp 
of  S 
Off. 

C/2 

go 

< 

bcc 
X 

°  Fahr. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

°  Fahr. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

232 

82.7 

82.0 

83.3 

238 

79-5 

78.5 

80.7 

233 

81. Q 

80.5 

82.8 

239 

79.2 

78.4 

80.3 

234 

81.2 

80.0 

81.9 

240 

78.7 

78.2 

79-7 

235 

80.8 

79-5 

81.6 

241 

78.5 

77-9 

79-3 

236 

80.5 

79-5 

S-i.i 

242 

78.1 

77-4 

78.9 

237 

80.0 

79.0 

80.9 

SORGHUM   SIRUP   OBTAINED    FROM    JUICE    OF 
DIFFERENT  DENSITIES. 

(Cleland  ) 


Gal.  Sirup 
Obtained  from 


Density 
of  Juice. 

6° 10      gal.  juice. 

6.5° 9        "        " 

7° 8.5    '' 

7.5° 8 

O /  O 


Density 
of  Juice. 


9^ 
12^ 


Gal.  Sirup 
Obtained  from 

7 

gal.  juice 

6 

5    "       " 

6 

( (       <  ( 

5 

-    ( (       ( ( 

5 

<  (       ( ( 

Sorghum  juice  usually  shows  8°  to  10°  density;  thin  semi- 
sirup  is  20°  density,  heavy  semi-siri.p  is  30°,  hot  finished  sirup 
is  36°  to  38°,  and  cold  sirup  about  40°  density.     (Wiley.) 


98 


AGTJirrLTURE. 


TEMPERATURES        TO        WHICH        PERISHABI.E 

GOODS    3IAY    BE    SUBJECTED    AVITHOUT    IX- 

JURY.      (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


Name  of  Article. 


Apples,  in  bbls 

loose  

Apricots,  baskets 

."^sparrigus 

Bananas      

Beans,  snap 

Beets 

Cabbaj:;fe.  early  or  late 

Caiila'oupes 

Cauliflower   ... 

Celery      .    

Cheese 

Cranberries 

Cucumbers 

EjrLjs,  bbi'd  or  crated 

Fish 

Flowers.     

Grapes 

Kale    

Leek      

Lemons  . 

Lettuce 

Mandarins 

Milk    

Ohves,  in  bulk  

"        "  glass 

Onions,  boxes 

Onions 

Oranges 

Parsley 

Parsnips.    ... 
Peaches, fresh.b'skets 

P;as 

Pineapples    

Plums        

Puiaioes,  Irish   .... 

"         sweet  

Radishes 

Rice 

Stirubs,  roses,  or  trees 

Spinach 

Strawberries 

Tangerines 

Thyme 

Tom  itoes,  fresh 

Turnips,  late 

Watermelons    


Lowi  st  Outside 
Temperature 


a.' 


Co 

"Ss- 

i5 

^5 

i-i 

°F. 

°  F. 

20 

10 

28 

15 

.15 

24 

28 

22 

50 
32 
26 

32 
26 
20 

25 

20 

32 

25 

22 

15 

10 

zero 

30 

25 

28 

20 

32 

20 

30 

20 

10 

zero 

35 

20 

34 

20 

«.i 

zero 

28 

20 

3^ 

20 

26 

15 

32 

20 

32 

28 

28 
25 

25 

20 

20 

15 

20 

10 

28 

20 

32 

20 

32 

20 

32 

20 

32 

20 

32 

25 

35 

52 

35 

25 

35 

28 

20 

15 

20 

10 

35 

10 

15 

15 

33 

25 

25 

'5 

20 

ID 

33 

28 

15 

zero 

20 

10 

—  10 

zero 


ID 

zero 
zero 
zero 
zero 
zero 

zero 


zero 

zero 

10 

ID 


Remarks. 


Covered  with  straw. 
Packed  in  straw. 

In  boxes  covered  with  mosn. 
Bulk  or  boxes  with  straw. 
In  barrels  or  crates. 
In  ciates. 
Barrels  or  crates. 

In  barrels  with  straw. 
Packed  in  crates. 


In  boxes  with  moss. 

In  barrels  always  iced. 
Packed  in  moss. 
Packed  in  cork. 
Packed  in  boxes  or  crates. 
Packed  in  boxes. 
In  boxes  or  crates. 
In  boxes  or  crates. 
In  boxes. 

In  barrels. 


In  barrels,  boxes,  or  crates. 
Baskets. boxes, bbls., or  crates. 
In  baskets. 
In  baskets  or  barrels. 

In  baskets  or  barrels. 
In  barrels,  crates,  or  in  bulk. 
jIn  boxes  with  paper. 
In  barrels  or  baskets. 
In  barrels  or  baskets. 
In  baskets. 
In  baskets  or  sacks. 
In  canvas  or  sacking. 
In  barrels  or  crates. 

In  boxes. 
|In  small  baskets. 

!ln  barrels. 

;/  n  barrels  and  in  bulk. 


HORTICULTURE. 


99 


TEMPERATURES  INJURIOUS  TO  PLANTS. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

The  following  table  shows  the  temperatures  at  which  the 
plants  mentioned  are  liable  to  receive  injury  from  frost. 
The  temperatures  are,  as  nearly  as  possible,  those  of  the 
air  in  contact  with  the  plant  itself. 


Plant  or  Fruit. 


Almonds 

Apples 

Apricots 

Asparagus  

Bananas 

Barley 

Beans   

Beets 

Cabbage    

Cantaloupes 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Cucumbers    

Cymlings  or  squash. 

Flowers  * 

Grapes  

Grape-fruit 

Lemons   ...    

Lettuce 

Mandarins   

Oats 

Okra.. 

Olives 

Onions 


Oranges  + 

Parsnips  ....    

Peaches    

Pears 

Peas  

Plums.... 

Potatoes:   Irish 

Sweet 

Prunes  

Radishes 

Shrubs,  trees,  or  roses. 

Spinach      

Strawberries 

Tangerines 

Tomatoes 

Turnips 

Watermelons. 

Wheat  

Walnuts,  English 


In  Bud. 


28 
27 

30 
29 

31 


32 


3^ 

31 
31 
31 
30 
30 


30 


29 


29 
30 


3^ 

30 


26-:jO 


28 
31 


30 


In 
Blossom. 


30 
29 

31 
29 

31 

29 

31 


32 


31 
31 
31 
31 
31 
31 


31 


31 


31 


30 
29 

30 
31 
30 
31 
31 


2a-32 


28 
31 
31 


InSetting 
Fruit. 


30 
30 
32 
29 
32 


31 

31 
31 
30 
31 
31 


31 


31 


31 


30 
29 

30 
31 
30 
31 
3' 


28 
31 
31 


31 

31 


At  Other 
Times. 


28 
26 

30 
26 

31 


25 
15-27 

30-31 
20-27 

28 

32 

30 

30 

28 

28 

28 
12-28 

38 


31 
ji8t 

(24§ 

2iJ 
J26I: 


27 

29 
28 

2S 
29 

31 
31 
29 

25 
30-26 
21 
30 
28 

31 

26 

28-31 


28 


*  Depends  on  variety. 
$  Ripe.        §  Green. 


t  Injured  at  2  higher  if  continued  4-6  hours. 


100 


AGRICULTURE. 


BEST  TEMPERATURES  FOR  PRESERVING 
HORTICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 

(Faville  and  Hall.) 


Product, 

Temperature, 
Degrees. 

Package. 

Time. 

Apples,  summer 

Apples,  winter 

Pears 

Peaches 

38  to  42 

32  to  35 

33  to  3« 
36  to  38 
38  to  40 
38  to  40 

40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 

38  to  42 
38  to  40 
35 

34  10  38 
34  to  40 
36  to  40 

34 

Barrels  or  boxes. 

Crates. 

In  sawdust, in  boxes. 

Crates. 

Quart  boxes. 

Crates. 

Boxes. 

2  to  4  months. 
s  to  8  months. 
2  to  4  months. 
2  to  4  weeks. 

Grapes                

6  to  8  weeks. 

Plums 

2  to  4  weeks. 

Berries  and  cherries.. 

I  to  3  weeks. 
8  to  12  weeks. 

Lemons,  oranges 

Figs,  raisins 

8  to  12  weeks. 
8  to  12  weeks. 

3  to  6  weeks. 
2  to  3  weeks. 
2  to  4  weeks. 

Crates. 

Boxes. 
Barrels. 

Boxes. 

Cucumbers  

I  to  3  weeks. 

Celery 

Cranberries . 

Onions 

Asparagus,  cabbage.. 



THE    PRESERVATIOX    OE    SOFT    FRUITS    FOR 
EXHIBITION    PURPOSES. 

(Department  of  Agricultuke,  Ottawa,  Canada.) 

To  preserve  strawberries,  raspberries,  and  other  soft  fruits, 
the  following  mixtures  are  recommended.  The  alcohol  is 
not  necessary  except  where  the  bottles  will  be  exposed  to 
frost.  The  chemicals  mentioned  in  the  list  may  be  obtained 
at  any  drugstore. 

General  Directions. — Select  the  finest  specimens  of  the 
fruit  both  as  to  form  and  size.  Handle  them  carefully  to 
avoid  all  bruising,  and  place  them  in  bottles,  arranging  the 
specimens  so  as  to  show  them  to  the  best  advantage.  Fill 
each  bottle  to  the  neck  with  fruit,  then  pour  on  the  fluid 
recommended,  filling  the  bottles  to  within  half  an  inch  of 
the  stopper  so  as  to  entirely  cover  the  fruit.  Then  place 
the  stopper  in  the  bottle  and  run  a  little  beeswax  or  paraf- 
fin over  the  joint  to  make  it  air-tight.  Tie  the  stopper 
down  with  a  piece  of  strong  cotton  and  attach  to  each  bottli" 


HORTICTTLTURE.  101 

a  label  containing  the  following"  particulars  :  Name  of  the 
variety  of  fruit,  name  and  address  of  the  grower.  Write 
also  in  each  case  in  one  corner  of  the  label  the  letter  sug- 
gested to  indicate  the  fluid  which  has  been  used.  Wrap  the 
bottles  in  paper  to  exclude  the  light,  and  preserve  in  a  cellar 
or  other  cool  place  until  required  for  shipment.  Strawber- 
ries and  raspberies  should  be  cut  from  the  plants  or  bushes 
Avith  a  pair  of  scissors,  leaving  a  short  piece  of  stem  at- 
tached to  each. 

Fluid  no.  i.  —  Formalin  (formaldehyde),  one  pound  (i6 
oz.) ;  water,  44  pounds  ;  alcohol,  5  pints.  Allow  the  mix- 
ture to  stand,  and  should  there  be  any  sediment,  pour  oft 
the  clear  liquid  and  filter  the  remainder  through  filtering- 
paper.  This  two-per-cent.  solution  of  formalin  has  been 
found  very  useful  for  preserving  strawberries  so  as  to  give 
them  a  natural  appearance. 

In  each  case  where  this  fluid  is  used,  mark  F  on  one 
corner  of  the  label. 

Fluid  No.  2. — A  solution  of  boric  acid  in  the  proportion 
of  two  per  cent.  Dissolve  one  pound  of  boric  (boracic)  acid 
in  45  pounds  of  water,  agitate  until  dissolved,  then  add  5 
pints  of  alcohol.  If  the  fluid  is  not  clear,  allow  it  to  stand 
and  settle,  when  the  clear  upper  portion  may  be  poured  off 
and  the  remainder  filtered. 

In  each  case  where  this  fluid  is  used,  mark  B  on  one 
corner  of  the  label. 

Fluid  No.  3. — A  solution  of  zinc  chlorid  in  the  propor- 
tion of  three  per  cent.  Dissolve  one-half  pound  of  zinc 
chlorid  in  15  pounds  of  water,  agitate  until  dissolved,  then 
add  if  pints  of  alcohol.  Allow  the  mixture  to  stand  until 
settled,  then  pour  off  the  clear  fluid  and  filter  the  remainder. 

In  each  case  where  this  fluid  is  used,  mark  Z  on  one 
corner  of  the  label. 

Fluid  No.  4. — Sulfurous  acid,  i  pint  ;  water,  8  pints  ; 
alcohol,  I  pint.  Allow  the  mixture  to  stand,  and  should 
there  be  any  sediment,  pour  off  ihe  clear  liquid  and  filter 
the  remainder. 

In  each  case  where  this  fluid  is  used,  mark  S  on  the 
corner  of  the  label. 


102  AGiviC'ULTURE. 

List  of  Fruits  with  tHe' Names  of  rreservatives  to  be  Used  in 

Each  Case. 

(Where  two  fluids  are  named  either  may  be  used,  but  the  first  named  is  preferred.) 


Strawberries.  —  Solution  No.  i,  form- 
alin 
Raspberries,  Red.  —  No.  2,  boric  acid; 

No.  I .  formalin. 
Raspberries,  White.  —No.  4,  sulfur- 

ous  acid;   No.  3,  zinc  clilorid. 
Raspberries,   Black.  —  No.    2,     boric 

acid. 
Blackberries.  —  No.    2,    boric    acid; 

No.  I,  iormalin. 
Cherries,    Ked  and    Bark  --No.    i, 

formalin:    No.  2.  b<  lic  acid. 
Cherries,    White.  —  No.   4,    suJurous 

acid. 
Currants.    Red. —  No.     i,    formalin; 

No    2.  boric  acid. 
Currants,    V\  hite. — No.    4.  sulfurous 


Apples,  fireen   and   Russet.  —  No.  3, 

zinc  thiorid. 
Apples,    more  or  less  Red. — No.   2, 

boric  acid. 
App  es,  White  and  Yellow. — No.   4, 

sulfurous  ac  d. 
Pears,  Ru^set  — No.  3,  zinc  chiorid. 
I'ears.  (Ireen  or  Ye. low.  —  No    4,  sul- 
furous acid. 
Plums    dark-co'ored  varieties. — No. 

I.  forma'in:    No.  -.  boric  acid. 
Plums,    (ireen    or   Ye..ow. — No.   4, 

sulfurous  acid. 
Peaches.    Apricots,     Nectari-es,    or 

(Juinces. — No.    4,   sulfurous  acid; 

No.  3.  zinc  chiorid. 
Giapes,  Red  or  Black. — No.  i,  form- 


acid;     No   3,  zinc  chiorid.  alin;  No.  2.  boric  acid 


Currants,  Black  — No.  2,  boric  acid. 
Gooseberries  — No.  1,  formalin;    No. 
2,  boric  acid. 


Grapes,    Green   or  Yeiow. — No.    4, 
su.furous  acid. 


THE   STAXDAKDS  OF  THE  BAFiTlMOHE  CANNED 
'GOODS    E.YCHANGE.      (Pa.  Dcpt.  of  Agriculture.) 

A.    pRUITS. 

Apples. — Pared  and  cored,  clear  in  color;  cans  to  be  full  of 
fruil,  put  up  in  water. 

Blackberries. — Cans  to  cut  out  not  less  than  two-thirds  full 
after  draining;    fruit  to  be  sound,  put  up  in  water. 

Cherries,  White  Wa.x. — Cans  to  be  full  of  fruit,  free  of  specks 
and  decay,  put  up  in  not  less  than  ten  degrees  of  cold  cane-sugar 
syrup. 

Cherries,  Red. — Cans  full  of  fruit,  free  of  specks  or  decay, 
put  up  in  water. 

Gooseberries. — Cans  to  cut  out  not  less  than  two-thirds  full 
after  draining;    fruit  unripe  and  uncapped;    put  up  in  water. 

Egg  Plums  and  Green  Gages. — Cans  full,  whole  fruil,  free  from 
reddish  color  or  specks,  put  up  in  not  less  than  ten  degrees  of 
cold  cane-sugar  S}Tup. 

Peaches.— Ca.ns  full,  fruit  good  size,  evenly  pared,  cut  in  half 
pieces,  put  up  in  not  less  than  ten  degrees   of  cold  cane-sugar 

syrup. 

Pie  Peaches. — Cans  full,  fruit  sound,  unpared,  cut  in  half  pieces, 

put  up  in  water. 

Pears.  BartleU. — Cans  full,  fruit  white  and  clear,  pared,  cut  in 


HORTICULTURE.  103 

half  or  quarter  pieces,  put  up  in  not  less  than  ten  degrees  of 
cold  cane-sugar  S)Tup. 

Pears,  Bell  or  Duchess. — Cans  full,  fruit  pared,  cut  in  half  or 
quarter  pieces,  put  up  in  not  less  than  ten  degrees  of  cold  cane- 
sugar  syrup. 

Pineapples.— Co-ns  full,  fruit  sound  and  carefully  pared,  slices 
laid  in  evenly,  put  up  in  not  less  than  ten  degrees  of  cold  cane- 
sugar  syrup. 

Plums  and  Damsons. — Cans  full,  so__und  fruit,  put  up  in  water. 

Quinces. — Cans  full,  fruit  pared  and  cored,  cut  in  half  or 
quarter  pieces,  put  up  in  not  less  than  ten  degrees  of  cold  cane- 
sugar  syrup. 

Raspberries. — Cans  to  cut  out  not  less  than  two-thirds  full  and 
after  draining,  fruit  to  be  sound,  put  up  in  not  less  than  ten 
degrees  of  cold  cane-sugar  syrup. 

Straivherries. — Cans  to  cut  out  after  draining  not  less  than 
half  full  of  fruit,  which  shall  be  sound,  and  not  of  the  variety 
known  as  seedlings,  put  up  in  not  less  than  ten  degrees  of  cold 
cane-sugar  s}Tup. 

Whortleberries. — Cans  full,  fruit  to  be  sound,  put  up  in  water. 

B.  Vegetj^bles. 

Lima  Beans. — Cans  full  of  green  beans,   clear  liquor. 

String  Beans. — Cans  full,  beans  young  and  tender  and  care- 
fully strung,  packed  during  growing  season. 

Corn. — Sweet  corn  only  to  be  used  from  the  cob  while  young 
and  tender,  cans  to  cut  out  full  of  corn. 

Peas. — Cans  full  of  young  and  tender  peas,  free  of  yellow  or 
black  eyes,  clear  liquor. 

Pumpkin. — To  be  solid  packed  as  possible,  free  from  lumps 
and  of  good  color. 

Succotash. — Cans  to  be  full  of  green  corn  and  green  lima  beans. 

Tomatoes. — Cans  to  be  reasonably  solid,  of  good,  ripe  fruit, 
cold  packed. 

STANDARD    SIZES    FOR    CANS. 

Diameter.  Height.  1                                   Diameter.     Height. 

No.  I  Cans 2j  in.  4    in.  I  No.    6   Cans,   twice   the   quantity   of 

No.  2  Cans Si's"  4i1i  "  I         No.  3. 

No.  3  Cans   4i^8  "  49    "  No.  10  Cans  6^  in.  7  in. 


104  AGRICULTURE. 


VI.  SEEDS. 

SEED-TESTING    FOR   THE    FARMER. 

iSy  the  late  Gilbert  H.  Hicks,  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.* 

Not  less  important  than  good  soil  and  suitable  cultivation 
is  seed  of  the  best  obtainable  quality.  In  no  feature  of 
farm  practice  is  niggardly  economy  or  lack  of  proper  atten- 
tion more  productive  of  disappointment  and  loss  than  in 
the  failure  to  provide  proper  seed  for  sowing.  The  market 
gardener  is  fully  alive  to  this  fact,  and  makes  the  purchase 
of  desirable  seed  his  foremost  care.  He  wants  not  only 
seed  which  will  grow,  but  also  that  which  will  produce  an 
even  stand  and  yield  a  large  crop  of  the  very  best  vegetables. 
The  matter  of  paying  a  few  cents  or  even  a  dollar  extra 
per  pound  is  to  him  of  no  significance,  since  he  knows  by 
long  experience  that  the  increased  value  of  his  crop  will 
far  outweigh  the  extra  cost  of  the  seed. 

With  many  farmers  this  care  in  the  selection  of  seed  is 
often  lacking.  Frequently  the  land  is  all  tilled  and  ready 
for  sowing  before  the  seed  is  bought.  It  is  then  too  late 
to  give  it  a  careful  preliminary  test,  even  if  the  owner  de- 
sired to  do  so.  This  results  very  often  in  a  poor  stand, 
perhaps  in  a  failure  of  the  crop,  or  in  the  scattering  of 
hordes  of  weeds  all  over  the  farm,  which  usurp  the  place 
of  the  cultivated  plants,  and  cost  infinite  trouble  in  their 
eradication.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  case  of 
the  clovers,  grasses,  and  other  forage  plants.  No  matter 
how  poor  the  seed  turns  out  to  be,  after  once  sown  it  is  too 
late  to  secure  any  redress  from  the  seedsman.  Besides, 
there  are  very  few  places  in  this  country  where  one  can 
get  seed  tested  in  order  that  its  real  value  may  be  ascer- 
tained before  sowing.  It  becomes,  then,  a  matter  of  great 
importance  to  the  farmer  to  provide  himself  with  some 
simple  but  efficient  means  for  testing  his  seed  before  it  is 
sown. 

All  seed  which  is  to  be  used  for  spring  sowing  should  be 
procured  whenever  possible  in  the  previous  fall  or  winter. 

*  Revised  by  A.  J.  Pieters.  late  liotanist  in  Charge  of  Seed  and  Plant  Intro- 
duction, U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


SEEDS.  105 

The  long  winter  months  will  give  ample  opportunity  for 
close  examination  of  the  seed,  and  if  any  of  it  be  found  of 
inferior  quality,  as  will  not  infrequently  prove  to  be  the  case, 
there  will  be  plenty  of  time  to  replace  it  with  a  desirable 
article.  In  all  cases  seed  should  be  bought  of  the  most  re- 
liable seedsmen.  In  many  instances  it  will  pay  to  get  seed 
from  the  large  dealers,  as  they  have  first-class  opportu- 
nities for  handling  the  very  best  seed  in  the  country.  The 
extra  cost  for  carriage  will  be  a  small  item  compared  with 
the  chance  for  obtaining  good  seed. 

No  matter  from  what  source  the  seed  is  obtained,  nor 
how  reliable  the  dealer,  every  farmer  should  test  each  lot 
of  seed  he  expects  to  plant.  Besides  learning  its  quality, 
he  will  often  obtain  valuable  information  concerning  the 
depth,  temperature,  and  amount  of  moisture  needed,  etc. 
Furthermore,  if  the  seed  fails  to  come  up  well,  the  planter 
will  have  some  intelligent  data  for  ascertaining  the  reason, 
and  will  not  be  obliged  to  depend  entirely  upon  the  state- 
ment of  seed  catalogues,  which  convey  the  impression  that 
failure  to  germinate  is  more  likely  to  be  the  fault  of  the 
outdoor  conditions  than  of  the  seed  itself. 

Good  seed  is  marked  by  three  characteristics  :  purity — 
or  freedom  from  foreign  matter,  whether  seeds  of  weeds 
or  other  plants  ;  vitality — or  capacity  for  sprouting  under 
favorable  conditions  ;  and  genuineness — or  trueness  to 
name.  If  any  of  these  qualities  be  lacking,  the  seed  is  un- 
worthy of  general  trial. 

Purity. — Most  vegetable  seeds,  especially  if  grown  in 
America,  are  quite  free  from  admixture.  Seed  of  the  cab- 
bage family,  however,  if  grown  abroad,  and  sometimes 
that  of  American  origin,  may  contain  a  mixture  of  wild 
mustard  or  similar  seed,  often  so  near  like  the  good  seed 
as  to  be  almost  indistinguishable  from  it. 

Clover  and  grass  seed  is  very  likely  to  contain  more  or 
less  seed  of  noxious  weeds  or  inferior  grasses  ;  hence  a 
careful  purity  test  is  necessary  in  such  cases.  Hairy  vetch 
and  other  leguminous  forage  seeds,  excepting  the  clovers, 
generally  come  from  Europe  and  are  frequently  impure. 
Often  it  will  require  considerable  care  to  detect  impurities 


106  AGRicui/rruE. 

in  the  seeds  of  forage  plants,  and  in  case  of  any  doubt 
samples  of  such  seed  should  be  sent  to  the  nearest  experi- 
ment station  or  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  ex- 
amination. 

Purity  tests  are  usually  made  by  weighing  out  a  few 
ounces  of  seed  which  has  been  well  stirred  up  so  as  to 
make  the  sample  uniform.  This  seed  is  placed  upon  a 
pane  of  glass  under  which  is  a  piece  of  light-colored  paper, 
and  the  sample  is  carefully  gone  over  seed  by  seed  with  a 
small  forceps  until  all  the  impurities  are  separated  out. 
After  again  weighing,  the  percentage  of  impurity  is  easily 
obtained.  If  the  impurity  consists  of  chaff  or  dirt,  the  loss 
will  consist  only  in  paying  for  somtthing  which  will  not 
grow.  This  will  render  necessary  the  sowing  of  more  than 
the  usual  amount  of  seed  to  the  acre.  If  weed  seeds  are 
present,  there  will  be  greater  or  less  loss  according  to  the 
character  of  the  weeds.  Such  seeds  as  Canada  thistle, 
dodder,  Russian  thistle,  chess,  wild  mustard,  cockle,  plan- 
tain, black  medic,  daisy,  penny-cress,  wild  carrot,  wild 
oats,  and  a  few  others,  are  serious  pests.  Every  farmer 
should  be  able  to  recognize  these  weed  seeds,  and  avoid  all 
seed  which  contains  any  of  them  even  in  small  amounts. 
He  should  also  be  familiar  with  the  ordinary  grass  seeds  of 
trade,  such  as  June  grass,  orchard  grass,  the  common  fes- 
cues, red  top,  tall  meadow  oat  grass,  etc.  Grass-seed 
mixtures  almost  invariably  contain  a  large  proportion  of 
seed  of  inferior,  if  not  worthless,  species,  dirt,  and  chaff, 
and  should  be  avoided.  It  is  much  better  to  find  out  what 
grasses  are  adapted  to  one's  fields  or  pastures  and  to  buy 
such  seed  separately,  mixing  it  at  home. 

If  scales  are  not  at  hand,  the  amount  of  pure  seed  in  a 
given  sample  can  be  approximately  learned  by  placing  the 
pure  seed  in  a  small  bottle  with  the  impurities  in  another 
bottle  of  similar  shape  and  size.  The  names  of  the  foreign 
seeds  may  be  learned  from  some  botanist  or  experiment 
station.* 

*  The  following-  standards  o/ />urity  are  adopted  by  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  : 
Asparagxis,  beans,  buckwheat,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  celery, 


SEEDS.  lot 

After  determining  the  per  cent  of  pure  seed  in  a  sample, 
the  gcrminative  ability  should  be  ascertained.  This  is  even 
more  important.  One  can  judge  fairly  well  of  the  purity 
of  seed  by  a  casual  inspection,  but  no  one  can  tell  by  its 
looks  whether  a  seed  is  capable  of  sprouting  or  not.  Con- 
sidering the  great  amount  of  labor  and  expense  involved, 
it  is  surprising  that  so  few  farmers  test  their  vegetable  and 
field  seeds  before  they  are  sown. 

Even  fresh  seed  is  sometimes  incapable  of  germination 
through  improper  care  in  harvesting  or  cleaning.  Nor 
can  fresh  seed  be  told  by  its  appearance  with  certainty. 
Add  to  this  the  fact  that  old  seed  is  frequently  offered  for 
sale,  and  there  is  no  lack  of  reason  for  testing  the  sprout- 
ing capacity  of  the  seed  one  intends  to  sow. 

If  the  heat  and  moisture  are  properly  controlled,  seed- 
testing  will  be  found  a  very  simple  matter.  Seventy  to 
eighty  degrees  Fahrenheit  must  be  maintained  during  the 
day,  with  a  fall  of  not  more  than  twenty  degrees  at  night, 
and  the  seed  must  be  kept  constantly  damp,  but  not  wet. 
A  good  plan  is  to  plant  a  hundred  seeds  of  average  quality 
— that  is,  an  average  number  of  large,  small,  plump,  and 
shrivelled  ones,  etc. — in  moist  soil  in  a  box  or  in  a  small 
flower-pot  which  is  set  inside  of  a  large  pot  also  containing 
soil.  Water  as  needed  is  added  from  time  to  time  in  the 
larger  pot  and  the  whole  is  kept  covered  so  as  to  prevent 
evaporation  and  sudden  cooling.  When  the  seeds  begin 
to  come  up,  the  pots  should  be  exposed  to  the  light.  After 
about  two  weeks  for  most  seeds  the  seedlings  are  counted 
and  the  percentage  of  sprouts  ascertained.  If  the  soil  has 
been  previously  heated  to  kill  all  weed  seeds,  and  proper 
precautions  have  been  taken,  such  a  test  will  give  a  good 
indication  of  the  value  of  the  seed.     To  make  sure,  a  dupli- 

collards,  Indian  corn,  cow  pea,  cucumber,  eg^gplant,  lettuce, 
melon,  millet  (common  and  pearl),  oats,  okra,  onion,  peas, 
pumpkin,  radish,  rutabaga,  salsify,  squash,  tomato,  tuinip, 

vetch  (hairy)     99  per  cent. 

Alfalfa,  beets,  crimson  clover,  red  clover,  cotton,  Kafir  corn, 

parsley 98      "       " 

Parsnip    97      "       " 

Hungarian  brome  grass,  carrot,  white  clover,  alsike  clover... gs      "       " 
J une  grass,  poa  compressa 90      "      " 


108  AGRICULTURE. 

cate  lot  of  one  hundred  seeds  should  be  tested  at  the  same 
time  under  the  same  conditions  and  the  results  compared. 
If  the  variation  exceeds  ten  per  cent,  the  tests  should  be 
repeated  until  the  source  of  error  is  discovered.  Grasses 
and  very  fine  seed  will  require  more  care  than  other  kinds. 
Such  seed  should  be  barely  covered  with  soil,  while  in  all 
cases  too  deep  planting  must  be  avoided.  In  testing  grass 
seeds,  except  timothy,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  heavier 
chaff,  which  looks  like  good  seed,  but  does  not  contain  a 
grain,  is  not  counted  with  the  good  seed.  Every  seed 
should  be  gently  pressed  Vvith  the  finger-nail  or  with  a 
small  penknife  to  determine  whether  or  not  it  contains  a 
grain.  The  chaff  should  count  as  impurity,  but  should  not 
be  tested  for  germination.  Some  hard-coated  seeds  may 
be  soaked  a  few  hours  in  warm  water,  but  as  a  usual  thing 
it  is  better  not  to  do  so. 

Seeds  of  clovers  and  most  vegetables  can  be  easily  ger- 
minated between  two  folds  of  damp  flannel  cloth  placed  be- 
tween two  plates.  Such  tests  permit  frequent  inspection 
of  the  seed,  which  should  be  thrown  away  as  fast  as  it 
germinates,  count  being  kept  of  the  same.  Damp  blotters, 
porous  dishes,  and  various  kinds  of  especially  prepared 
germinating  apparatus  are  sometimes  used  in  seed-testing. 
The  amount  of  moisture  to  be  given  varies  greatly  with 
the  variety  of  seed  and  can  be  best  learned  by  experience. 
In  general,  quick-sprouting  seeds,  like  clover,  cabbage, 
radish,  etc.,  will  stand  more  moisture  than  those  varieties 
which  sprout  more  slowly. 

To  make  sure  of  the  vitality  of  seed  it  is  better  to  test  it 
in  the  soil,  as  previously  suggested,  and  also  by  the  cloth 
or  plate  method.  Soil  tests  should  be  continued  a  few  days 
longer  than  those  made  between  cloth  or  blotters.  There 
is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  standards  of 
germination  to  which  first-class  seed  should  attain.  Those 
in  use  at  present  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
are  given  in  the  first  table  on  page  109.  While  first-class 
seeds  should  reach  the  standards  referred  to,  it  may  be  said 
that  seed  which  falls  as  much  as  ten  per  cent  below  them 
need  not  be  rejected  as  bad. 


SEEDS. 


109 


TABLE    OF    GERMIXATIOX    STANDARDS. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Seed. 


Asparagus    . .   . , 
Beans,  bush     . . , 

"        lima   . . .  , 

Beet 

Borecole 

Broccoli   ...... 

Brussels  sprouts 
Buckwheat  .... 

Cabbage 

Carrot   

Cauliflower , 

Celeriac   

Celery     

Chicory 

Clover,  alfalfa. . 

"        alsike. 
red 

"        scarlet 

'*        white... 

pollards  

C^rn   ... 

Cotton   

Cowpea   

Cress . . 


8s 
95 
95 
150 
95 
85 
95 
95 
95 


Seed. 


Cucumber qo 

Egg-plant    .... 80 

Endive   ...    94 

Gherkin 92 

Grasses: 

Canada  blue 50 

Fowl  meadow.  ..    75 

Johnson 75 

Hungarian brome  80 
Kentucky  blue.  .  t  50 
Meadow  fescue..    80 

Orchard    I   80 

Texas  blue I   50 

Timothy   I  90 

Kafir  corn ...i  90 

Kohl-rabi |  90 

Leek 85 

Lettuce 90 

Lupin,  yellow I  90 

Melon     .  I  90 

Millet,  common....  1  90 

"       pearl .'  90 

Mustard !  95 

Oats 90 


Seed. 


Okra  

Onion 

Parsley 

Parsnip 

Peas 

Pepper  .... 
Pumpkin.  ., 
Radish...  . 
Rape 

Rhubarb  ... 
Rutabaga. . . 

Salsify   

Sorghum 

Spinach 

Spurry   . . .  . 

Squash 

Sunflower  .. 

Tobacco 

Tomato 

Turnip 

Vetch,  hairy 
Wheat 


90 
85 
75 
75 
98 

85 
90 

95 
95 
85 
95 
83 
90 
89 
90 
90 
90 
88 
90 

95 
90 

95 


NUMBER,   WEIGHT,  COST  OF  GRASS  SEEDS,  AND 
AMOUNT  TO  SOW  PER  ACRE. 

(Yearbook  L^.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  ) 

[Columns  i,  y,  3,  and  4  are  compiled  from  "  The  Best  Forage  Plants,"  by 
6tebler  and  Schroeter.  The  figures  in  column  5  are  obtained  by  multi- 
plying the  amount  of  standard  quality  of  seed  required  (col.  2)  by  the  retail 
price  quoted  ia  X.  Y.  catalogues.  The  weight  of  10,003.000  grains  (col.  6) 
is  obtained  by  dividing  this  quantity  by  the  numbei  of  seeds  in  one  pound 
(col.  i).] 


(i) 

(2) 

0  c  >- 

(3^ 

(4) 

(5) 

(6) 

l\ame. 

mber  of 
ains  per  1 
Pure  See 

^  <-    -Oi 

3  |_3  ^ 

u   a? 

•0 
fli    • 

^  0  <" 
"is.  %■'! 

^   ^  ,A 

■71  <« 

■-    0  u 

0 

^,^  0 
603,000 

<   - 

<       £  C 
7  .00 

8-32 

i"^ 

I 

Redtop  (Agrostis  alba^   ... 

9-7 

$[.45 

16.58 

2 

Reed    canary    grass   (Pha- 

laris  arundinacea)     .     . 

660,000 

21.0 

12.00 

44-48 

7-35 

i5-'5 

.3 

Smooth -stalked      meadow 

grass  (Poa  pratensis)    ... 

2,400,000 

»7-5 

8.40 

12-20 

2.10 

4.17 

4 

Rough -stalked       meadow 

grass  (Poa  trivialis)   .... 

3,000,000 

19.5 

8.7s 

11-17 

4.88 

3-33 

110 


AGI{.CILTC11R. 


NUMBKK,    WEIGHT,  CO.-;!'   o:^  CRASS  SEEDS,  AND 
AMOUNT  TO  SOW    PER   WWh:— Continued. 


(1) 

^2) 

si -6 

0   .-   u 

~  i) 

ir..-  - 

Name. 

^t7 

2  i?  c  >^ 

»-      « 

HJ  «;  J: 
.DCs 

=  <tA  5 

c 

1  1  ^Ci 

^.L-  0 

<     — 

5 

Sheep's     fiscue     (Fe^tuca 

ovina)                            

680.000 

28  0 

t 

Various  leavt'd  fescue  iFes 

tuca  heteropliylhu 

400,000 

33-5 

7 

Creeping    fescue    (Kisiuca 

rut^ra'             .   . 

600,000 

42  5 

8 

Awnless  broine  giass  (l>io- 

mus  iiierinisi 

137,000 

44  0 

9 

Perennial  rye  {irasslLoliuin 

perennei         . .     .    .  . 

336,800 

55-0 

lo 

Italian    rye    grass  (I.olium 

italicum) 

285.000 

48.5 

II 

Orchard      grass     (Daclylis 

glomerata) 

57Q.500 

350 

1:2 

Meadow    fescue    (Ftstuca 

pratensis)    .      .. 

318,200 

52.0 

13 

Meadow  oat  grass  (Arrhe- 

natlicruni  avenactuin). . 

159,000 

70.0 

14 

Yellow  oat  grass  (Trisetum 

flivescens)         .... 

2.045,000 

29  0 

15 

Velvet  grass  (Holcus  lana- 

tus) 

1,304.000 

22.0 

i6 

Tim()thy(Phleum  pratense) 

1,170,500 

16.0 

17 

.Meadow    fo.xfail    (Alopecu- 

rus  pratensis)    

907.000 

23.0 

i8 

Vernal     grass    (Anthoxan- 

thum  odoraiumi 

924,000 

30.0 

19 

Crested  dog's  tail  (Cynosu- 

rus  cristatus). . . 

1,127.000 

25.0 

20 

Alsike     clover    (Trifolium 

hybridum^   . 

707.000 

12.3 

21 

Sainfoin    (Onobrvchis     sa- 

liva)    

22,500 

78.0* 

22 

Red  clover  (Trifolium  pra- 

tense)    .    

279.000 

18.0 

23 

White     clover     (Trifolium 

repens) 

740,000 

'0-5 

24 

Comm->n  kidney  vetch  (An- 

thyllus  vulneraria) 

154,000 

17-5 

25 

Alfalfa,   or    luccrn    (Medi- 

cago  sativa) 

209,500 

25.0 

26 

TrefoiUMedicago  lupulina) 

32.^,000 

18.0 

27 

Bird's-foot     trefoil    (Lotus 

corniculatus)   

375.000 

11 .0 

28 

Otficin.d  g>.at's  rue  (Galega 

ofificinalis) 

62,000 

22.0 

n) 


(4) 


c.ECt/5     ^.o 

^   u   i_    ^       *-"  _' 
-  u  -  —      s:  <u 


(5) 


c  :. 


(6) 


^o5 

c   c    ^ 

_    O   (« 

-  S-E 


12.60  10-15 

19   50  .    .     .. 

1 3  00  10-15 

35,60  10-14 

38.50  18-30 

32  40  12-24 

.  .    .  .  .  12-16 

l2-'--6 


34  30 
4.64 


10 


20     14.85 
,38    25  00 


5-5    24 
4 


8.80        6.5 
14.00        48 

6.21   1       6 

7.80     

13.50    io-3? 


9.00    94-100'   I 


16.67 

72.99 

29.70 

35   10 

'7-25 

31-42 

62.89 

4.89 

7.66 
8.54 


60.84*      40 
15.84   '     64 
750  I     63 
1 5  00    60-64      4 


22  00    61-63 
14-75    64-66 

4.67        60 

6 . 90  ! 


IT. 02 

ID    82 

8.87 

14.14 

•25  444  44 

•50    .35-84 

•94|    13-51 

.58    67.15 

25    48.56 
,161   30.48 


26.66 
161 .29 


*  Unshelled. 


SEEDS.  Ill 

NOTES    ON    ADAPTABILITY   AND    USES    OF    PRE- 
CEDING  GRASSES   AND   CLiOVERS. 

No.  I.  Requires  moist  climate  or  damp  soil.  Best  propa- 
gated by  transplanting  small  turf  cuttings  in  autumn. 
Valuable  for  late  pasturage  or  lawns  in  the  New  England 
and  Middle  States.      Use  5-10  per  cent  in  mixtures. 

No.  2.  Adapted  to  stiff,  wet  lands  and  flooded  fields. 
Requires  moisture.  Valuable  hay  when  cut  young,  and 
well  suited  for  binding  loose  banks  near  running  water  or 
for  forming  a  firm  sod  on  marshy  ground. 

No.  3.  Grows  best  on  strongly  calcareous  soils.  Well 
adapted  for  pasture,  and  makes  a  good  bottom  grass  for 
meadows.     An  excellent  lawn  grass. 

No.  4.  Should  be  sown  only  on  moist,  fertile,  and  shel- 
tered soils  in  mixtures. 

No.  5.  Light,  dry  soils,  especially  those  which  are  poor, 
shallow,  and  silicious.  Valuable  bottom  grass  and  for  sheep 
pastures.      Sown  only  in  mixtures. 

No.  6.  Best  on  moist,  low  lands  containing  humus  and 
sandy  loams.  Withstands  drought;  useful  in  pasture;  un- 
important for  hay.     Alone  it  makes  no  continuous  turf. 

No.  7.  Valuable  pasture  or  bottom  grass.  Withstands 
drought;  endures  both  cold  and  shade.  On  poor  land,  es- 
pecially moist  sands  and  railway  banks,  serves  to  bind  the 
soil.      Product  small. 

No.  8.  Valuable  for  light  soils,  especially  in  regions  sub- 
ject to  extremes  of  heat  or  long  periods  of  drought.  Used 
alone  or  in  mixtures  for  permanent  meadows  and  pastures. 

No.  g.  Excellent  and  lasting  pasture  grass  for  heavy  soils 
in  moist,  cool  climates.  On  light,  dry  soils  disappears  after 
the  second  year.     Rarely  sown  alone. 

No.  10.  Excellent  for  rich  and  rather  moist  lands.  Re- 
garded in  Europe  as  one  of  the  best  for  hay.  Lasts  only 
two  or  three  years. 

No.  II.  Grows  well  on  any  soil,  excepting  that  which  is 
very  wet;  withstands  shade.  Affords  a  large  amount  of 
aftermath.     Valuable  alike  for  hay  and  pasturage. 

No.  12.  Thrives  in  either  dry  or  wet  soils-  Valuable  hay 
ot  pasture  grass. 


112  AGRICULTURE. 

No.  13.  Thrives  on  moist,  loamy  sands  or  light  clays 
which  are  not  too  moist,  and  marls.  Spring  most  favorable 
seed-time.  Valuable  in  the  South  for  hay  and  winter 
pasture. 

No.  14.  Valuable  for  temporary  or  permanent  pastures. 
Thrives  on  marly  or  calcareous  soil,  in  all  light  land  rich  in 
humus. 

No.  15.  Sometimes  sown  on  light,  thin  soils  unsuited 
for  more  valuable  sorts.  Rarely  used  excepting  in  mix- 
tures. 

No.  16.  Best  known  and  most  extensively  cultivated  for 
hay.  Sown  alone  or  mixed  with  redtop  or  clover.  Suc- 
ceeds best  on  moist  loams  or  clays.  On  dry  ground  the 
yield  is  light. 

No.  17.  Endures  cold.  Likes  strong  soil,  stiff  loam,  or 
clay.  One  of  the  best  grasses  for  land  under  irrigation. 
Very  early.  Two  to  four  pounds  in  mixtures  for  permanent 
pastures. 

No.  18.  Grows  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil;  soAvn  only  in 
mixtures,  i  to  2  pounds,  with  permanent  pasture  or  meadow 
grasses. 

No.  19.  Especially  adapted  for  loams,  light  clays,  marls, 
and  moist,  loamy  sands.  Moist  climates  are  most  suitable. 
Withstands  drought  and  thrives  well  in  shade.  Nutritive 
value  high.  Used  in  mixtures  to  form  bottom  grass  either 
in  pasture  or  hay. 

No.  20.  Grows  on  strongest  clay  or  peaty  soil:  peculiarly 
adapted  to  damp  ground.  Bears  heavy  frosts  without 
injury.     Sown  in  August  or  February. 

No.  21.  Requires  good  and  open  subsoil,  free  from  water. 
Sown  alone,  from  end  of  March  to  beginning  of  May. 

No  22.  Succeeds  best  in  rich,  loamy  soil,  on  good  clays, 
and  on  soils  of  an  alluvial  nature.  A  standard  fodder 
plant. 

No.  23.  Thrives  on  mellow  land  containing  lime,  and  on 
ail  soils  rich  in  humus.  Resists  drought.  Generally  used 
in  mixtures  for  pastures  or  lawns. 

No.  24.   Cultivated  for  grazing;  on  warm  soils,  if  manured 


SEEDS. 


113 


and  of  proper  depth.  Hardy;  resists  drought.  Sheep, 
goats,  and  horned  cattle  eat  it  greedily. 

No.  25.  Grows  well  on  any  calcareous  soil  having  a  per- 
meable subsoil.  Especially  adapted  to  the  warm  and  dry 
regions  of  the  West  and  Southwest.      Requires  irrigation. 

No.  26.  Any  soil  containing  sufficient  moisture  and  lime 
is  suitable.  Most  successful  on  clay  marls.  Cultivated 
only  where  the  better  kinds  of  clover  cannot  be  grown. 

No.  27.  Thrives  on  dry  or  moist,  sandy  or  clayey  soils. 
Well  suited  to  dry  lands  at  high  elevations,  though  poor. 

No.  28.  Excellent  fodder  plant  for  warm,  sheltered  situ- 
ations. Thrives  only  in  deep  soil,  and  when  subsoil  is  not 
wet. 


VITALITY    OF    SEEDS    IF    PROPERLY   KEPT. 

(McKerrow.) 


Turnips 5  years 

Rape 5 

Pumpkin 5 

Peas 3 

Beans 3 

Clover 3 

Oats 3 

.Qarley 3 


W^heat 2  years 

Buckwheat 2  " 

Corn 2  " 

Timothy 2  " 

Rye ,    2  " 

Flax 2  " 

Millet 2  " 

Orchard-grass 2  ** 


114 


AGRICULTURE. 


SEEDSMEN'S    CUSTOMARY   WEIGHTS    PER    BUSHEL    OF 
SEEDS.     (E.  Brown.) 


Kind  of  Seed. 


Alfalfa 

Amber  cane 

Bent  grass: 

Creeping 

Rhode  Island.  . 
Bermuda  grass.  .  . 
Bird's-foot  clover. 

Bitter  vetch 

Blue  grass: 

Canada 

Kentucky 

Texas 

Broad  bean 

Bromc,  awnless.  . 

Broom  com 

Bur  clover: 

Hulled 

Unhvilled 

Spotted 

Castor  bean 

Clover: 

Alsike 

Crimsoni 

Egyptian 

Mammoth 

Rod 

White 

Cowpea 

Crested  dog's  tail. 
Fescue: 

Hard 

Meadow 

Red 

Sheep's 

Tall 

Various  leaved. 

Flat  pea 

Flax 

Hemp 

Japan  clover: 

Hulled 

Unhullcd 

Johnson  gr:.ss.  .  .  . 

Kafir  com 

Lentil 

Lupine,  white.  .  .  . 
Meadow  foxtail. .  . 
Meadow  grass: 

Fowl. 

Rough  stalked. 


Pounds 

per 
Bushel. 


60 
45-60 

10-20 

10- I  T 
24-36 

60 

60 

14-20 
14-30 

14 
50-60 
10-14 
45-60 

60 

8-10 

60 

46-60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 
56-60 
14-30 

12-16 
14-24 

I2-I  5 

12-16 
14-24 

i4-i>'^ 
50-60 
48-56 
40-60 

60 
18-25 
14-28 
50-60 

60 

50-60 

7-14 

11-14 
14-20 


Wood I    14-24 


Kind  of  Seed. 


Millet: 

Barnyard 

Bror.m  com 

Common 

German 

Golden  wonder 

Hungarian 

Pear] 

Milo  maize 

Oat  grass: 

Tall 

Yellow 

Orange  cane 

Orchard  grass 

Pea: 

Field 

Garckn,  smooth 

Garden,  wrinkled.  .  .. 

Peanut 

Rape,  winter 

Red  ton: 

Chaff 

Fane   

Rescue  grass 

Rice 

Rye  grass: 

English 

Italian 

Sainfcin 

Serradella 

Soy  bean 

Spelt 

Sunflower 

Sweet  clover: 

Hulled 

Unhulkd 

Sweet  c^rn  (ace.  to  var.) 
Sweet  vernal,  perennial . 

Teosinte 

Timothy 

Velvet  bean 

Vetch: 

H:iry 

Spring 

Water  grass,  large 

Wild  rice 

Yellow  trefoil 


Pounds 

per 
Bushel. 


30-60 
45-60 
4S-50 
48-50 
48-50 
48-50 
48-56 
50-60 
10-14 

7-14 
45-60 


60 

60 

S6 
20-30 
50-60 

10-14 
25-40 
12-28 
43-45 

10-30 
14-25 
14-32 
28-36 
58-60 
40-60 
24-50 

60 

33 

36-56 

6-15 

40-60 

45 
60 

50-60 
60 

14 

15-28 

60 


SEEDS. 


115 


WEIGHT    AND   SIZE   OF   GARDEN    SEEDS. 

(ViLMORIN.) 


Name. 


Anise 

Asparagus  bean  . 

Bean 

Beet 

Borecole 

Broccoli 

Cabbage 

Caraway 

Carrot : 

With  spiiics.  . . 

Without  spines 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Chicory 

Cress,  American.. 

com.  garden 

Cucumber,  com.  . 

globe.. 

snake. 

Dill 

Eggplant 

Endive 

Gourds,  fancv.  . . 

Hop. . .....:... 

Kohlrabi 


Wt.ofa 

No.  of 

Qt.  of 

Seeds 

Seeds, 

in  a 

Oz. 

Grain. 

I  r  .7 

13 

29.9 

32-42 

243 

''"5 

9-7 

3 

27.2 

19 

27 .  2 

24 

27.2 

19 

1O.3 

23 

9-3 

45 

14.0 

62 

27.2 

24 

18.6 

162 

I  S  ■  5 

45 

21.0 

62 

28.  4 

29 

19-4 

2 

19.4 

5 

17-5 

3 

I  I  .7 

58 

10.4 

16 

13-2 

39 

17-5 

I 

9-7 

T,? 

27.2     _ 

19 

Name. 


Leek 

Lettuce 

Maize 

Muskmelon 

lUustard,  black. . 

white  . 

Nasturtium,  tall. 

dwari. 

Okra 

Onion 

Pea 

gray  or  field. 

Peanut 

Pepper 

Pumpkin 

Purslane 

Radish 

Rhubarb 

Salsify 

Spinach 

Squash 

Tomato 

Turnip 

Watermelon.  . .  . 


Wt.ofa 

Qt.  of 

Seeds, 

Oz. 


21 .4 
16.7 
24.9 
14.0 
26.  2 
29. 1 

13-2 

23-3 

24.1 

19.4 
27. 2-31. 1 
26.4-31. 1 

15-  5 

17-5 
9-7 

23-7 

27  .  2 

3- 1-4-7 
8.9 
19.8 
16.7 
II  .7 
26.0 
17.9 


No.  ol 

Set  as 

in  a 

Grain. 


26 

52 

t2-3 

4 

45 

13 

t4-S 

I 

tio-i 2 

16 

ti-4 

t3-5 

ti-2 

10 

t2 
162 

8 

3 

6 

7 

6 
19-26 

29 
t3-4 


*  In  100  grains.  t  In  10  grains. 

AVERAGE     TJME     REQUIRED     FOR   GARDEX 
SEEDS   TO  GERMINATE.     (Bailey.) 


Name. 


Bean 

Beet 

Cabbage.  . .  . 

Carrot 

Cauliflower. 
Cel  rv 


Davs. 


6—10 
7—10 
6-10 

12-18 
6-10 

10-20 


Name. 

Days. 

Carn 

5-8 

Cucumber 

6-10 

Endive 

Lettuce 

5-10 
6-8 

Onion 

Pea 

7—10 
6-10 

Name. 

Days. 

Parsnip 

Pepper 

Radish 

Sr.lsifv 

10-20 
9-13 
3-6 
7—1  2 

Tomato 

Turnip 

6-12 

4-8 

A  lEIiD  OF    SEEDS   FROM  AN    ACRE.     (Bailey.) 


Bean 

Cabbage  (2  years) 

Cucumber 

Muskmelon 

Pea 

Squash,  winter.  .  . 

' '         summer.  . 

Sweet  corn 


T-^mato 

Watermelon. 


Good 

Crop 

( -=  20  bu. 

Wheat). 


600  lbs. 

250 

150 

125 

900 

100 

100 

T 000-2 500 

(acc.  to  var.) 

TOO 

150 


Maximum 

Crop 
(=-  so  bu. 
Wheat). 


1500   lbs. 

800 

700 

600 
2500 

400 

700 
2500-4000 

400 
1000 


Yield  Seedsmen 
wotild  Figure  in 
Making  Contracts 
lor  Large  Quan- 
tities. 


500  lbs. 
200 
100 
100 
800 
100 
100 
800-2000 

TOO 
TOO 


116 


AGRICULTURE. 


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ENEMIES   OF    FAIIM    CROPS.  121 


VIII.    ENEMIES    OF    FARM    CROPS. 

TREATMENTS    FOR    IX.TURTOUS    IXSECTS    AND 
FUNGUS   DISEASFJS  OF   PLANTS. 

By  the  late  Prof.  E.  S.  Goff,  of  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station. 
The  value  of  the  following  treatments  for  preventing  injury 
to  crops  from  insects  and  fungus  diseases  has  been  proved  by 
abundant  experience.  It  is  essential  that  the  treatments  be 
given  promptly  ^r\i\  thoroitghlv.  In  the  case  of  fungus  dis- 
eases, it  is  generally  essential  that  the  applicatic<iis  lie  made 
btfori'  the  disease  appears,  since  they  are  preventive,  rather  than 
curative.  The  treatments  considered  most  impi^rlant  are  printed 
in  italics.  As  a  rule,  those  not  so  printed  need  be  given  only 
'.n  seasons  or  localities  in  which  the  attack  is  serious.* 

Formulas. 

No.  I.  Bordeaux  Mixture. — Place4  pounds  of  copper  sulfate 
in  a  cloth  sack  and  suspend  this  over  night  in  a  wood  vessel 
ccjntaining  4  gallons  of  water,  immersing  the  sack.  In  another 
wood  vessel  slake  6  pounds  of  fresh  lime  in  as  many  gallons  oi 
water.  When  the  lime  is  cool,  pour  it  and  the  copper  sulfate 
solution  into  a  barrel  and  add  enough  water  to  make  45  gallons. 
Apply  at  once  with  a  force-pump,  with  spraying  nozzle,  stir- 
ring frequently  during  the  application. 

No.  2.  At)imoniaeal  Copper  Carbonate.  —  Dissolve  I  ounce  of 
copper  carbonate  in  3  pints  of  strong  ammonia  and  add  this 
solution  to  25  gallons  of  water.  Apply  as  in  No.  i.  No  stir- 
ring is  required. 

No.  3.  Copper  Suljate  Solution. — Dissolve,  as  directed  in  No. 
T,  I  pound  of  copper  sulfate  in  15  gallons  of  water.  Apply 
as  in  No  2. 

No.  4.  Stir  4  ounces  of  Paris  green  in  40  gallons  of  water, 
and  add  A  pound  of  fresh  lime,  slaked  in  2  quarts  of  hcjt 
water.      Apply  as  in  No.  i. 

No.  5.  Bordeaux  Mixture  (^o.  i),  with  Paris  green  added  at 
the  rate  of  i  ounce  to  10  gallons.     Apply  as  in  No.  i. 

*  The  following  scheme  for  treating  crops  is  after  a  plan  published  by 
the  late  Mr.  K.  G.  Lodemann  of  Cornell  University,  in  Trans.  N.  V.  State 
Agricultural  Society  for  1893,  PP-  •76-179. 


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AGRICULTURE. 


No.  6.  London  purple,  4  ounces,  very  thoroughly  mixed  with 
25  pounds  of  land  plaster.      Apply  with  a  sprinkling-box. 

No.  7.   Mix   I   ounce  of  fresh  powdered  white  hellebore  in  3 
gallons  of  water.    Apply  at  once  with  force-pump  or  sprinkling 
pot. 

No.  8.  Kerosene  Etmilsion. — Dissolve  \  pound  hard,  or  I 
quart  of  soft  soap  in  2  quarts  of  boiling  water;  place  I  pint 
of  kerosene  in  a  tin  can;  pour  the  boiling-hot  solution  into 
this,  cork,  and  shake  rapidly  for  i  minute.  Before  using, 
dilute  with  its  own  bulk  of  warm  softwater.  Apply  as  in 
No.  2. 

No.  g.  Mix  I  pound  of  fresh  ryrethruni  po7vder  with  an 
equal  bulk  of  air-slaked  lime  in  a  bottle  or  tin  can ;  cork 
tightly  and  leave  24  hours  before  use.  Apply  in  still  air, 
with  sprinkling-box  or  powder-bellows. 

No.  10.    A I  r-sla  hed  /i  we  a.pp\icd  with  a  sprinkling-box. 

No,  II.  Cut  small  cards  from  thin  tarred  paper,  slit  one  side 
to  the  centre,  and  make  a  short  cross-cut  near  the  end  of  the 
slit,  as  in  drawing. 


No.  12.  Corrosive  Sublimate  Solution.  —  Dissolve  'l\  ounces 
of  corrosive  sublimate  in  2  gallons  of  hot  water,  and  pour 
this  solution  into  15  gallons  of  cold  water.  Use  wood, 
earthen,  or  glass  vessels.  For  potato  scab  the  formaldeiiyd 
treatment  is  preferable  (see  p.  107). 

No.  13.  Potassiiirn  Sul/id  Solution. — Dissolve  -J  ounce  of 
potassium  sulfid  (liver  of  sulfur,  sulfuret  of  potassium) 
in  I  quart  of  warm  (not  hoti  water,  and  add  this  solution  to 
5  quarts  of  cold  water.     Apply  as  in  No.  2. 


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ENEMIES   OF   FARM   CROPS. 


125 


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126 


AGRTCrLTURE. 


A  CHEAP  ORCHARD-SPRAYING  OUTFIT. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

Spraying  to  control  various  insect  pests,  particularly  thost 
of  the  orchard  and  garden,  has  reached  so  satisfactory  and 
inexpensive  a  basis  that  it  is  recognized  by  every  progres- 
sive farmer  as  a  nec- 
essary feature  of  the 
year's  operations,  and 
in  the  case  of  the  apple, 
pear,  and  plum  crops 
the  omission  of  such 
treatment  means  seri- 
ous loss.  The  conse- 
quent demand  for 
spraying  apparatus  has 
been  met  by  all  the 
leading  pump  manufac- 
turers of  this  country, 
and  ready-fitted  appa- 
ratus, consisting  of 
pump,  spray  tank  or 
barrel,  and  nozzle  with 
..wsc,  are  on  the  market 
in  numerous  styles  and 
at  prices  ranging   from 


Orchard-spraying  Apparatus. 


$20  upward.  The  cost  of  a  spraying  outfit  for  orchard 
work  may,  however,  be  considerably  reduced  by  purchasing 
merely  the  pump  and  fixtures,  and  mounting  them  at  home 
on  a  strong  barrel.  An  apparatus  of  this  sort,  representing 
a  style  that  has  proven  very  satisfactory  in  practical  ex- 
perience, is  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  figure.  It  is 
merely  a  strong  pump  with  an  air-chamber  to  give  a  steady 
stream,  provided  with  two  discharge  hose-pipes.  One  of 
these  enters  the  barrel  and  keeps  the  water  agitated  and 
the  poison  thoroughly  intermixed,  and  the  other  and  longer 
one  is  the  spraying  hose  and  terminates  in  the  nozzle.  The 
spraying-hose  should  be  about  20  feet  long,  and  may  be 
fastened  to  a  light  pole,  preferably  of  bamboo,  to  assist  in 


ENEMIES    OF    FARM    CROPS.  127 

directing  the  spray.  The  nozzle  should  be  capably  of 
breaking  the  water  up  into  a  fine  mist  spray,  so  as  to  wet 
the  plant  completely  with  the  least  possible  expenditure  of 
liquid.  The  two  more  satisfactory  nozzles  are  those  of  the 
Nivcr  and  the  Vermorel  type.  A  suitable  pump  with  nozzle 
and  hose  may  be  obtained  of  any  pump  manufacturer  or 
hardware  dealer  at  a  cost  of  from  §13  to  $15.  If  one  with 
brass  fittings  be  secured  it  will  also  serve  for  the  application 
of  fungicides.  The  outfit  outlined  above  may  be  mounted 
on  a  cart  or  wagon,  the  additional  elevation  secured  in  this 
way  facilitating  the  spraving  of  trees,  or  for  more  extended 
operations,  the  pump  may  be  mounted  on  a  large  water 
tank. 

PREVENTION    OP    OAT-S3IUT.     (Goff.) 

The  smut  of  oats,  which  causes  an  annual  loss  to  the 
farmers  of  the  United  States  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to 
millions  of  dollars,  may  be  entirely  prevented  by  treating 
the  seed  oats  before  sowing,  at  a  cost  for  labor  and  materials 
which  need  not  exceed  five  cents  per  acre  of  oats  sown. 

Two  methods  of  treatment  have  been  found  satisfactory. 
These  we  will  call  for  convenience  the  Formaldehyd  Treat' 
ment  and  the  Hot-water  Treattiient.  The  first  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  the  simpler,  but  it  requires  a  small  cash 
outlay  for  materials.  The  second  requires  no  materials  or 
apparatus  except  what  the  farmer  already  has,  unless  it  be 
a  good  thermometer. 

The  Formaldehyd  Treatment. — Soak  the  seed  oats  one  hour 
in  a  solution  of  formaldehyd,  made  by  adding  one  ounce  of 
formaldehyd  to  every  3^  gallons  of  water.  Place  the  water 
in  a  barrel,  or  other  convenient  vessel,  add  the  formaldehyd 
to  it,  and  pour  in  one  and  one-half  bushels  of  seed  oats  for 
each  3^  gallons  of  the  solution.  At  the  end  of  one  hour^ 
draw  off  or  pour  ofif  the  part  of  the  solution  that  is  not  ab- 
sorbed by  the  oats,  and  spread  the  oats  on  a  clean  floor  to 
dry.  They  should  be  shoveled  over  once  or  twice  a  day 
until  dry  enough  to  sow. 


128  AGRICULTURE. 

Formaldehyd  is  a  liquid  that  may  be  purchased  at  drug- 
stores. Ask  iox  forty-per-cent  formaldehyd.  It  costs  from 
50  to  60  cents  per  pint,  and  a  pint  contains  enough  for  about 
30  bushels  of  seed  oats.  It  is  sold  in  smaller  quantities  at 
10  cents  per  ounce.  If  formaldehyd  is  purchased  in  consid- 
erable quantities,  it  will  be  well  to  have  the  druggist  weigh 
out  one  ounce  in  a  small  bottle,  and  then  mark  on  the  bottle 
the  height  to  which  the  ounce  reaches.  This  bottle  may 
then  be  used  as  a  measure  in  adding  the  formaldehyd  to 
the  water. 

The  Hot-zvatfr  Treatment  consists  in  soaking  the  seed 
10  minutes  in  water  at  a  temperature  of  133°  F.  Heat  the 
water  in  a  large  kettle,  and  close  by  sink  a  barrel  in  the 
ground  to  within  a  foot  of  the  top.  Pour  a  part  of  the  hot 
water  into  the  barrel,  and  take  the  temperature  with  a  good 
thermometer.  Then  add  either  cold  or  hot  water,  stirring 
it  in  the  mean  time,  until  it  shows  a  temperature  of  138°. 
Put  about  a  bushel  of  oats  in  a  coarse  gunnysack,  tie  this 
to  one  end  of  a  pole  and  rest  the  pole  over  a  post,  thus  mak- 
ing a  lever,  by  which  the  sack  of  oats  may  be  easily  raised 
or  lowered.  Now  dip  the  sack  of  oats  into  the  water  in  the 
barrel.  The  water  will  be  immediately  cooled,  and  hot 
water  must  be  added  to  keep  the  temperature  about  133°. 
Let  one  person  attend  to  the  temperature,  and  another  to 
handling  the  oats.  Keep  the  oats  moving  in  the  barrel. 
Take  them  out  at  the  end  of  10  minutes,  dip  the  sack  at 
once  in  cold  water,  then  spread  on  a  clean  floor  to  dry. 
Shovel  them  over  three  times  a  day  for  a  few  days,  when 
they  may  be  sown  with  a  force  drill  ;  or  in  two  or  three 
hours  they  may  be  sown  broadcast.  As  the  oats  absorb 
considerable  water,  it  is  necessary  to  sow  about  half  a 
bushel  more  per  acre  than  when  untreated  seed  is  used. 
This  is  on  the  basis  of  two  and  one-half  bushels  per  acre. 
Two  men  in  one  day  can  treat  enough  seed  to  sow  twe-nty 
acres. 

This  treatment  may  also  be  applied  with  satisfactory 
results  for  the  prevention  of  smut  of  other  cereals  than 
oats,  and  for  prevention  of  potato-scab,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  following  article. 


ENEMIES    OF    FARM    CROPS.  129 


THE  FORMALDEHYD  TREATMENT  FOR  TEE 
PREVENTION  OF  THE  SMUTS  OF  CEREAL. 
GRAINS  AND  OF  l»OTx\TO-SCAB.    (Bolley  ) 

For  Wheat,  Oats,  Barley,  and  Millet. — Use  formalde- 
hyd  (40  per  cent  solution)  at  the  rate  of  i  pound  of 
the  liquid  to  45  or  50  gallons  of  water.  Use  any  method 
of  wetting  the  grain  most  suited  to  your  means.  Sprink- 
ling and  shoveling  is  as  effective  as  dipping,  if  carefully 
done. 

It  is  well  to  treat  one  day  and  allow  the  grain  to  remain 
piled  up  overnight,  thus  allowing  the  fumes  of  the  solution 
to  act  throughout  the  pile. 

Cautions. — (i)  In  the  case  of  oats  or  barley  the  wetting 
must  be  more  thorough  than  in  the  case  of  wheat,  so  that 
the  formaldehyd  or  gas  may  penetrate  beneath  the  husks  of 
the  grain. 

(2)  Do  not  allow  wet  grain  to  remain  in  a  pile  long 
enough  to  get  hot.  A  very  slight  degree  of  fermentation 
may  greatly  reduce  the  yield. 

For  Potato-scab. — Soak  the  tubers  before  cutting  one  hour 
and  a  half  in  a  solution  of  formaldehyd  at  .'.le  rate  of  one 
pound  of  the  liquid  to  thirty  gallons  of  water  ;  or  in  a 
solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  using  one  pound  of  the 
chemical  to  each  fifty  gallons  of  water. 

Note  :  The  potato-scab  fungus  lives  from  year  to  year  in 
the  soil  and  upon  old  vines.  Hence  it  is  wise  to  try  to 
keep  it  off  your  lands,  by  treating  all  seed-tubers.  (See 
Bull.  37,  N.  D.  Experiment  Station.) 


130  AGRICULTURE. 

FIGHTING      THE     CHINCM-BUG      BY     MEANS     OP 
KEROSENE    EMULSION.      (Goff  ) 

Experiments  have  established  the  fact  that  with  thorough 
work  according  to  the  directions  given  belov.  the  kerosene 
emulsion  will  prevent  the  invasion  of  cornfields  by  chinch- 
bugs,  even  though  the  bugs  appear  in  great  numbers. 

Hozv  to  Make  and  Apply  the  Kerosene  Emtilsion. — Slice  half 
a  pound  of  common  bar  soap,  put  it  in  a  kettle  with  one  gal- 
lon of  soft  water,  and  boil  until  dissolved  ;  put  two  gallons 
of  kerosene  in  a  churn  or  stone  jar,  and  to  it  add  the  boiling- 
hot  soap  solution  ;  churn  from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes, 
when  the  whole  will  appear  creamy.  If  properly  made,  no 
oil  will  separate  out  when  a  few  drops  of  the  emulsion  are 
placed  on  a  piece  of  glass.  To  each  gallon  of  the  emulsion 
add  eight  gallons  of  water  and  stir.  Apply  with  a  sprink- 
ling-pot. 

Every  farmer  should  learn  to  make  this  emulsion,  as  it  is 
a  most  useful  insecticide.  It  is  especially  valuable  for  kill- 
ing lice  on  cattle  and  hogs.  Paris  green  will  not  kill  chinch- 
bugs. 

The  bugs  will  be  very  likely  to  enter  cornfields  border- 
ing grainfields,  after  the  grain  is  cut.  Before  they  have 
had  time  to  do  this  plough  a  deep  furrow  along  the  side  of 
the  field  they  will  enter,  and  throw  into  it  stalks  of  green 
corn.  When  the  bugs  have  accumulated  on  the  corn, 
sprinkle  with  the  emulsion.  Put  in  fresh  stalks  and  sprinkle 
whenever  the  bugs  accumulate.  If  they  break  over  the 
barrier,  as  they  probably  will,  run  a  few  furrows  a  few 
rows  back  in  the  field,  and  repeat.  When  they  have  at- 
tacked stalks  of  standing  corn,  destroy  by  sprinkling. 

If  the  remedy  is  tried,  it  should  be  used  persistently.  To 
kill  one  lot  of  bugs  and  then  stop  will  do  little  or  no  good. 
When  the  bugs  threaten  to  destroy  as  much  as  five  or  ten 
acres,  it  will  pay  for  one  or  two  men  to  devote  their  whole 
time  to  the  warfare.  Only  a  part  of  each  day,  however, 
will  be  needed.  Some  corn  will  be  \ci'^*  at  best,  but  the  most 
of  the  field  should  be  saved 


FORESTRT.  13  L 

TX.  FORESTRY. 

FORESTRY  FOR   FARMERS. 

By  Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  late  Director  of  the  New  York  State  College  of 

Forestry. 

There  has  been  much  talk  about  forestry  in  the  U.  S.,  but 
there  has  been  little  application  of  the  teachings  of  that 
science.  This  is  easily  explained  in  so  far  as  the  lumber- 
men are  concerned,  who  are  in  the  business  of  making 
money  by  cutting  the  virgin  woods,  similar  to  the  mining 
of  ore,  but  it  is  less  intelligible  with  the  farmer  who  is  pre- 
sumed to  be  in  the  business  of  making  money  by  the  pro- 
duction and  harvesting  of  crops,  which  he  grows  on  the 
soil  of  his  farm. 

That  his  wood-lot  could  and  should  by  him  be  also  treated 
as  a  crop  seems  rarely  to  have  entered  his  mind.  Whether 
he  starts  out,  as  in  the  prairie  portions  of  the  State,  by 
planting  a  grove,  or  whether  he  cuts  his  wood  from  the 
virgin  growth  which  he  left  after  clearing  enough  for  field 
and  meadow,  in  either  case  he  should  fully  realize  that  he 
is  dealing  with  a  valuable  crop,  which  requires  and  will 
pay  for  the  attention  and  application  of  knowledge  in  its 
management,  such  as  a  true  husbandman  would  give  to  it. 

The  Wisconsin  farmer,  just  as  his  neighbor  in  Minnesota, 
living  in  a  State  largely  covered  with  timber  of  great  value, 
has  special  reason  to  practise  the  principles  of  forestry  in 
order  to  get  the  most  out  of  this  part  of  the  property  both 
for  the  present  and  the  future.  And  those  who  are  located 
in  the  prairie  portions  have  no  less  need  of  maintaining  a 
forest  growth  on  some  part  of  their  farm  as  a  matter  of 
proper  management  of  their  resources. 

The  first  thing,  as  with  every  other  crop,  that  will  have  to 
be  decided  is  on  what  portions  of  the  farm  this  wood-crop 
is  best  propagated.  In  deciding  about  the  location  of  the 
wood-lot  the  farmer  must  keep  in  mind  : 

I.  That  wood  will-grow  on  almost  any  soil,  which  is  unfit 
for  agricultural   use  ;  that,  although    it  grows  best  on   the 


132  AGRICULTURE. 

best  sites,  it  is  to  be  mainly  considered  and  used  as  a  "  stop- 
gap" to  make  useful  those  parts  which  would  otherwise  be 
waste. 

2.  That  a  forest  growth,  besides  furnishing  useful  material, 
is  a  condition  of  soil-cover  which  affects  other  conditions, 
namely,  of  climate  and  water-flow,  and  hence  its  location 
should  be  such  as  to  secure  the  most  favorable  influence  on 
these. 

3.  That  the  wood-crop  does  not  live  on  the  soil,  but  on  the 
air,  enriching  the  soil  in  nutritive  elements  by  its  decaying 
foliage  rather  than  exhausting  it,  and  hence  that  no  ma- 
nuring and  no  rotation  of  crops  is  necessary  as  in  field 
crops;  in  other  words,  the  location  of  the  wood-crop  can  be 
made  permanent. 

A  wood  growth  should  therefore  be  maintained  on  the 
farm  : 

a.  Wherever  the  ground  is  too  wet  or  too  dry,  too  thin 
or  too  rocky  or  too  steep,  for  comfortable  ploughing  and  for 
farm  crops  to  do  well,  or  for  pasturage  to  last  long,  or,  in 
general,  where  the  ground  is  unfit  for  field  and  meadow. 

b.  On  the  highest  portions  of  the  farm,  the  tops  of  hills 
and  also  in  belts  along  the  hillsides,  so  as  to  interrupt  con- 
tinuous slopes,  which  might  give  rise  to  such  a  rush  of 
surface-waters  as  to  gully  the  ground  and  make  it  unfit  for 
field  crops  or  pasture  ;  the  gentler  slopes  which  are  liable 
to  washing  should  at  least  be  kept  in  grass  or  terraced  for 
crops  to  prevent  the  rush  of  surface-waters. 

c.  Along  watercourses,  where  narrower  or  wider  belts  of 
timber  should  be  maintained  to  prevent  undermining  of 
banks  and  washing  of  soil  into  the  streams  if  ploughed  too 
close  to  the  border  ;  the  shade  of  a  forest  growth  would 
also  check  rapid  evaporation  of  smaller  watercourses. 

d.  Wherever  the  protection  by  a  wind-break  against  cold 
or  hot  winds  is  desirable,  for  which  purpose  the  timber  belt 
is  of  more  far-reaching  effect  than  the  wind-break  of  a  single 
row  of  trees  ;  the  reduced  evaporation  from  the  fields  due 
to  this  protection  has  been  known  to  increase  the  yield  of 
field  crops  by  as  much  as  25  per  cent. 

e.  On  all   unsightly  places,    which   impair   the   general 


FORESTRY.  IT.] 

aspect  of  the  farm — and  there  are  few  farms  without  these 
— a  few  trees,  a  small  grove,  will  add  to  the  thrifty  appear- 
ance of  the  farm,  make  useful  the  otherwise  waste  spots, 
ai.d  serve  as  shelter  to  grazing  cattle,  etc. 

Altogether,  the  farmer  should  realize  that  husbandry  of 
soil  and  water  is  the  secret  of  future  success,  and  that 
successful  water  management  is  best  attained  by  the  main- 
tenance of  properly  located  and  well-managed  forest  areas. 

There  is  much  extravagant  talk  about  the  influence  of 
forests  on  climate  and  on  rainfall  especially.  We  have  but 
little  definite  knowledge  on  these  subjects,  but  it  takes  no 
expert,  only  a  little  observation,  to  appreciate  the  effects  of 
a  wind-breaking  timber  belt  on  one's  own  feeling,  and  it 
takes  but  little  reasoning  to  appreciate  that  the  field  crop 
in  the  shelter  of  the  timber  belt  participates  in  this  feeling. 
The  dry  winds  are  the  great  bane  of  field  crops  in  the  West, 
because  they  dissipate  the  moisture  ;  a  timber  belt  breaks 
their  force  and  reduces  thereby  their  evaporating  power. 

Just  so  it  takes  no  great  philosopher  to  see  that  when 
rain  falls  on  naked  ground  it  compacts  that  ground  and  by 
and  bv  prevents  itself  from  penetrating;  the  water  is  forced 
to  drain  off  superficially  and  rapidly,  instead  of  sinking  into 
the  ground  and  remaining  there  for  the  use  of  field  crops. 
And  that  the  washing  and  gullying  of  the  soil  is  also  a  result 
of  this  rushing  off  of  surface-waters,  due  to  the  clearing 
away  of  its  plant-cover,  requires  no  wise  man  to  point  out  ; 
every  farmer  experiences  it  more  or  less  every  year. 

That  any  one  farmer's  neglect  or  the  devastation  of  any 
small  part  of  the  forest  growth  should  have  an  influence  on 
the  rainfall  or  climate  of  the  whole  country  nobody  should 
claim;  but  the  conditions  surrounding  each  particular  farm, 
its  local  climate,  soil,  and  water  conditions,  are  changed, 
and  finally  the  aggregate  changes  make  themselves  felt  over 
the  whole  state. 

Now  as  to  the  management  of  the  wood-lot  a  few  hints 
may  be  acceptable.  The  farmer  may  not  necessarily  employ 
the  finer  methods  of  managing  the  wood-crop,  but  by  the 
mere  application  of  common  sense  and  a  little  knowledge 
of  tree-life  he  may  do  better  than  he  does  at  present. 


134  AGRICULTURE. 

He  should  at  least  observe  the  following  rules  : 

1.  Fire  should  be  carefully  kept  out  of  the  wood-lot 
for  it  has  in  no  way  a  beneficial  effect.  It  kills  not  only  the 
undergrowth,  which  is  desirable  because  it  helps  to  shade 
the  soil,  and  injures,  if  it  does  not  kill,  the  young  tiee 
growth,  which  is  to  take  the  place  of  the  older  growth,  but 
the  worst  effect  is  that  it  consumes  the  vegetable  mould 
which  has  accumulated  by  the  fall  and  decay  of  leaves, 
twigs,  and  other  vegetation,  and  which  forms  the  manure, 
the  fertility,  of  the  soil.  Fire  is  to  be  used  only  when 
through  bad  management  or  otherwise  a  dense  undesirable 
undergrowth  has  come  in,  which  it  is  too  expensive  to  re- 
move in  other  ways  when  the  time  for  natural  reproduction 
has  come  or  planting  is  to  be  done.  It  must  then  be  used 
with  caution  in  early  spring  or  late  fall,  before  the  brush  is 
too  dry,  when  the  fire  will  smoulder  rather  than  burn 
fiercely  and  can  be  kept  within  bounds. 

2.  Cattle  must  be  kept  out  where  young  forest  growth  is 
to  be  fostered.  Sheep  and  goats  especially  are  of  no  benefit 
to  wood-crops,  but  horses  and  cattle  may  be  allowed  to 
browfce  through  the  wood-lot  where  the  young  growth  has 
passed  out  of  their  reach.  Pigs  are  a  benefit  by  working 
over  the  ground  and  thereby  burying  seeds,  especially 
acorns  ;  but  after  the  seed  is  so  brought  under  ground 
where  a  young  crop  is  expected  to  be  reared  next  year  they 
must  be  kept  out.  Altogether,  the  cattle  and  farm  animals 
should  be  kept  where  you  want  them,  and  not  where  you 
do  not  want  them.  Sometimes,  however,  the  roaming  of 
cattle  may  be  beneficial  by  keeping  down  too  dense  im- 
penetrable underbrush  in  young  sapling  growth. 

It  is  better  to  so  cut  and  manage  the  old  timber  that  a 
desirable  new  growth  will  spring  up  than  to  cut  clean  and 
replant.  Planting  should  be  done  only  where  there  is  no 
desirable  natural  tree  giowth.  Hence  where  there  is  a  well- 
established  wood-lot,  the  whole  management  of  the  crop 
consists  in  proper  cutting. 

How  this  is  best  done  cannot  be  described  readily  within 
the  short  space  of  this  article,  but  every  farmer  who  is 
interested    in    learning   the  principles  of  using  the  axe  to 


FORESTRY. 


135 


advantage  in  reproducing  a  wood  crop  or  how  to  establish 
a  wood- lot  can  obtain  from  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, free  of  charge,  a  pamphlet  entitled  "Forestry  for 
F^a.mers,"  in  which  in  plain  language  is  discussed  in  detail 
how  trees  and  forests  grow,  how  to  start  a  wood-crop,  and 
how  to  manage  the  wood-lot. 

It  does  not  exhaust  the  subject,  but  merely  teaches  the 
first  steps,  and  the  thinking  farmer  will  find  his  way  of  step- 
ping farther. 


NUMBER    OF    TREES    ON    AN    ACRE.     (Egleston  ) 

The  number  of  trees  needed  to  plant  an   acre  of  ground, 
at  various  distances  apart,  is  as  follows: 


2  ft.  apart  each  way   io,8go  j  12  ft.  apart  each  way 

3  "   by  2  ft 7,260 

3   "   apart  each  way     4,840 

2,722 


4 

5 

6 

8 

10 


1,742 

1.210 

680 

435 


15  " 
18  " 
20  *• 
22   " 

25  " 
30  " 


302 
200 

135 

no 

90 

70 

50 


Rows  six  feet  apart,  and  trees  one  foot  apart  in  the  row, 
7260  trees  per  acre. 

Rows  eight  feet  apart,  and  one  foot  apart  in  the  row. 
5445  trees  per  acre. 

Row^s  ten  feet  apart,  and  one  foot  apart  in  the  row,  4356 
trees  per  acre. 

One  mile  of  wind-breaks  or  shelter-belt  recjuires  5280 
trees,  or  cuttings  for  a  single  row  one  foot  apart  in  the  row. 


136 


AGKICULTUKE. 


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FORESTRY. 


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FORESTRY. 


139 


STATES    AND    TERRITORIES  OBSERVING   ARBOR 
DAY,   WITH    DATES.      (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


Year  of 

States. 

First  Cb- 

Time  of  Observance. 

servance. 

Alabama     

1887 
1 S90-9 I 

22d  of  Febru.iry. 

First  Friday  afier  ist  of  February. 

A rizona   

Arkansas 

California. 

1886 

Colorado 

1885 

Third  Frid.iy  in  April. 

ConiiL-cLicut    . .    .  . 

1887 

In  spring,  at  appointment  of  governor. 

F"l()rida    

1886 
1887 
1 886 
18S8 

January  8. 

Georiria 

First  Friday  in  December. 

o        

Idaho   

I.ast  Monday  in  Apiil. 

Date  fixed  by  gijvrrnor  and  superintend- 
en'  of  public  instruction. 

Illinois 

Indiana   

i'884 

Date    fixed    by  superintendent  of  public 
instruciion. 

Iowa  

1887     • 

Do. 

Kansas 

1875 

1886 

1888-89 

Option  of  governor,  usually  in  April. 
Do. 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Option  of  parish  boards. 

Maine 

1887 

Op'ioii  of  governor. 

Maryland .    .      

1S89 

'  <  1  tion  of  i  (jvernor.  in  ApriL 

Massachusetts.    ... 

1886 

Tast  Saturday  in  April. 

Michig-an . . 

i88s 

Option  nt  governc  r. 

Minnesota 

1876 

Do. 

Mississippi 

18.2 

Cpiion  ol  board  of  education. 

Missouri 

1886 

Fiisi  Friday  after  first  Tuesday  in  April, 
Third  7uesda\  of  April. 

Montana 

J887 

Nebraska 

T872 

22d  of  April 

Nevada           

1887 

Option  of  .governor. 

New  Hampshire... 

1886 

Do 

New  Jersey 

1884 

Option  of  governor,  in  April. 

New  Mexico 

t8od 

Second  Friday  in  March. 

^  r\v  York      

1S89 

First  Friday  alter  May  i. 

North  Carolina  . . . 

1893 

North  Dakota 

1884 

6th  of  May,  by  proclam.ation  of  governor. 

Ohio         

1882 

In  April,  liy  proclamation  of  governor. 

Oklahoma  ...  . 

Oregon   

1889 
1P87 

Second  Friday  in  April. 
Option  of  gov-ernor. 

P^nnsvlv.Tnia.  .... 

Rhode  Island..      . 

1887 

Do. 

Sou'h  Carolina 

Ui;cort;u'n 

Variab'e. 

South  Dakota. . 

1884 

Option  of  governor. 

Tennessee    

1875 

NoveiTiber.  at  designation  of  county  sup 
erintendents. 

Texas 

1800 

22d  of  February. 

Vermont         

1885 

Option  of  governor. 

Virfjii'^ia 

1892 

West  Virnjinia 

1S83 

Fall  and  ■spring,  at  designation  of  super 
intendent  of  schools. 

^'  isconsm    

1889 

Option  of  governor. 

Wy  ming.       ..... 

1888 

Do. 

Wasliinj^lon    

1892 

Do. 

uo 


AGitlCULTUKE. 


FOREST  FIRE    LAWS    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

(Fernow  ) 

(See  p.  142  for  penalties  imposed.) 


State. 


Alabama , 

Arkansas* -J 

California' 

Colorado -j 

Connecticut' 

Delaware*   

Florida 

Georgia' 

hlaho   

Illinois   

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas   

Kentucky   , 

Louisiana   

Maine 

Maryland.' 
Massachusetts'. 

Michigan* \ 

Minnesota* 

Mississippi   

Missouri.   


Edition  of 
Code, 


C.  C.  1886 

S.  &    H.'s    D. 

1894 

P.  C.  1886 

Mills,      G.      S, 

1891   

G.  S.  1888.  ..  , 
Vol.  XVIII.  .. 
Laws  1879   . . . . 


R.  S.  1887.  . 
R  S.  1895  ... 
R.  S.  1894  . . 
McLean's,  iJ 
C.  L.  i88q.  .. 
G.  S.  1888.  ., 


Laws  1891 . . .    . 

Sup.  1888  

Howell's  A.  S. 


G.  S.  I 

1892. 

R.  S.  I 


Title. 


19 


9 
24 


Chapter. 


48 


36 

99 
93 


38 
5 
3 


29 
100 

163 

328 

95 
29 

47 


Section. 


4226-8 
1580-4 

384 
1414  15,  17-18 

1458,  1460-2 
1-2 
3141 

1456-9 
6931 
18 
2001 
5 '85-92 
7276—8 
5-6 
817 
5 


9402-4 

6 
109 1 
3613 


*  S.  1847:  Burning  off  permitted  when  consent  of  neighbors  is  secured 
after  i  day's  notice. 

'  Pol.  Code,  S.  3344-5:  Persons  firing  woods,  etc.,  liable  in  treble  dam- 
ages. Constable,  etc.,  may  order  any  inhabitants  liable  to  poll-ta.\  to 
assist  in  extinguishing  tire. 

'  Must  give  notice,  before  burning  off,  to  all  residents  within  one  mile, 
and  can  only  be  done  between  February  15  and  March  31,  unless  otherwise 
oidered  by  county  commissioner. 

*  Prohibits  building  fire  in  woods  without  owner's  permission,  and  with 
out  first  clearing  away  combustibles,  and  extinguishing  fire. 

*  Must  give  I  day's  notice,  before  burning  off,  to  adjoining  property 
owners,  and  then  only  betwen  Feb.  20  and  April  i. 

*  No  law  included  in  Revised  Statutes. 

'  Ch.  296,  S.  1-6,  G.  S.  1883  :  Duty  of  fire  wardens  to  post  warnings, 
extinguish  fires,  and  investigate  causes  of  fires. 

■  Supervisors  and  highway  commissioners  to  order  assistance  in  putting 
out  fires;  fine  S5-$5o  for  refusal  to  assist. 

*  See  act  of  April  18,  1895. 


FORESTRY. 
FOKKST-FIKE    \a^.^^— Continued. 


141 


State. 


Montanai° 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jerscyii 

New  York 

North  Carolina!'-' 
North  Dakota. 

Ohiois 

Orcgoni*         ^     _ 

Pennsylvania.     . 

Rhode  Island..  . 
South  Carolinais 
South  Dakota.  . 
Tennessee**. . . 

Texas 

UtahiT 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West  Virginia  . . . 

Wisconsin    

Wyoming^s         _ 

Arizona 

New  Mexico  ... 

Oklahoma' 9  ..  . 


Edition  of 
Code. 


Title. 


P.  C.  1895. 
1895...   ... 

G.  S.  1885. 
P.  S. 

R.  S. 

R.  S     

Vol.  I.  1883. 

'895 

R.  S. 
Sess. 


1B91. 
1877. 


1894. 
1893. 


1S94 

G.  S.  t886. 


Dak. 
M.& 
P.  C. 
C.  L. 

1894 


R.  S. 
R  S. 
R.  S. 


Ter  ...   . 
V.  C.  1884 


i«;s7. 
18S7. 


1893. 


Fire. 
14 


Crim.  Stat. 


17 
10 

32 


Chapter. 


c    c.  Q-62 
277 

20 

7 
P.  C.  40 


279 

101 


213 
181 


Section. 


J         25       \ 
/  37  entire,  i 


1071-2 

6713 

4794 
3-7 
I   find   sup- 
plements. 

52-4 

73'4-i5 

6334 

Page  45 

Act  of  June 

II,  1879-81 

6 

151-7 
2398 
2277-8 

669-70 
4576 
4934 
3701-2 

81-84 
4406 

920-2 

608-9 
23»3-M 
2269-70 


1"  Penalty  for  failing  to  extinguish  camp-fii  e  or  malicious  firing  of  woods, 
fine  not  exceeding  $5000,  or  imprisonment  not  exceeding  5  years,  or  both. 

11  Ch.  188,  G.  P.  Laws  1888,  provides  detectives  for  violators  of  fire 
law.  Ch.  119,  Laws  1892,  and  Ch.  194,  Laws  1894,  provide  for  fire  mar- 
shals and  define  their  duties. 

1^  Fine  $10  for  leaving  unextinguished  camp-fire.  Two  days'  notice  in 
writing  before  firing  one's  own  woods. 

"  S.  4750-1:  Penalty  for  refusing  to  assist  in  extinguishing  fires,  fine  $10. 

i"*  Requires  governor  to  issue  proclamation  annually  July  i,  warning 
people  against  forest  fires. 

1*  If  turpentine  farm,  fine  $500,  or  penitentiary  i  year. 

18  Owner  may  fire  his  own  woods  after  two  days'  notice  to  neighbors. 

>'  Ch.  27.  Laws  1892:  Duty  of  county  sheriffs  to  extinguish  fires. 

18  Permits  firing  grass  and  sage-bush  March,  April,  and  October,  if  kept 
within  control. 

1*  Camp-fires,  and  regulations  for  burning  off  prairies,  etc.,  Ch.  37  (enacted 
1890)  provides  penalties  for  setting  fires  and  failure  to  extinguish. 


14:2  AGRICULTURE. 

FOREST-FIRE  Ij\\^^ ^—Cofitimied. 

PENALTY  PRESCRIBED  BY  STATE  LAWS. 

Alabama. — Fine    $io-$2oo ;    if    turpentine    forest,    $ioo-$iooo.  or   hard 
iabor  for  not  more  than  12  months. 

Arkansas. — Fine     $25-$3oo,    or    jail     10-60    days.      Liable    for    double 
d.images. 

California. — Fine  not  more  than  $1000,  or  jail  not  more  than  i  year,  or 
both. 

Colorado. ~V\\\e.%io-^loo.  or  jail  15  days  to  3  months,  or  both      If  on  State 
lands,  $5o-$5oo,  or  jail  20  days  to  6  months. 

Connecticiit.  —  V\\\^  $2o-$2oo,  or  jail  2-6  months,  or  both.     Fine  $i-$:;o, 
or  jail  not  more  than  30  days. 

Dela'Mare. — Fine  $25. 

Florida.  — Y'\x\^  not  more  than  $roo,  or  jail  not  more  than  60  days 

Georgia. — Fine  not  more  than  $1000,  or  i  year  in  chain-gang,  or  both. 

Idaho. — Misdemeanor. 

Illinois.— ¥\ne  $5-$ioo. 

Indiana.  — Fine  $5-$  100,  to  which  may  be  added  imprisonment  not  more 
than  30  days. 

Iowa. — Fine  not  exceeding  $500,  or  jail  not  e.xceeding  i  year. 

Kansas. — Fine  $5o-$5oo,  or  jail  10  days  to  6  months,  or  both. 

Kertucky. — Fine  $100,  or  in  discretion  of  jury. 

Louisiana.  — Fxne  $5-$5oo. 

Maine. — Fine  not  exceeding  $100,  or  jail  not  exceeding  30  days,  or  both. 

Massachusetts .  —  Y we  not  more  than  $100,  or  jail  not  more  than  6  months. 

Michigan. — Fine  not  more  than  $100,  or  jail  not  more  than  1  year,  or 
both. 

Minnesota — State  prison  6  months  to  2  years. 

Mississippi. — Fine  $2o-$5co,  or  jail  not  more  than  3  months,  or  both. 

Missouri — Fine  not  more  than  S500.  or  jail  not  more  than  12  months. 

Montana.— ¥\nt  not  more  than  $1000,  or  jail  not  more  than  t  year. 

Nebraska.  — ¥\r\e  8s-Sioo,  and  jail  1-6  months. 

Nevada. — Fine  S200-81000.  or  jail  10  days  to  6  months,  or  both. 

Nezu  Hampshire. — Fine   $10-82000,  or   imprisonment  not   more  than  3 
years. 

New  [erst'y.—Yint  not  more  than  $100,  or  jail  not  more  than  i  year,  or 
both. 

New  York — Fine  not  exceeding  $1000,  or  imprisonment  not  exceeding 
I  year. 

North  Ca  rolina  .--Fine  S50.  , 

North  Dakota.  — V^'\\in\.  a  misdemeanor;  negligent,  fine  $io-Sico. 

Ohio. — Fine  not  more  than  8100,  or  jail  not  more  than  20  days,  or  both. 

Oregon. — Fine  $io-$iooo,  and  in  certain  cases  penitentiary  not  exceed, 
ing  I  year. 

Pennsylvania.— Yine.  not  more  than  $300,  or  jail  not  more  than  i  year 
or  both. 


FORESTRY.  143 

Rhode  Island. — Imprisonment  not  exceeding  2  years. 

South  Carolina. — Fine  $5-$ioo,  or  jail  not  more  than  30  days. 

South  BaJkota.— Fine  not  more  than  $200,  or  jail  not  more  than  1  year, 
or  both. 

Tennessee.— Forlcit  $100  to  prosecutor  and  fine  $5-850  (S.  2277,  Code 
Sup.  1893). 

Texas. — Fine  S50-300. 

Utah. — Misdemeanor. 

Vermont.— ¥'\ne  not  more  than  S500,  or  penitentiary  not  more  than  % 
years. 

Virginia. — Fine  $5-$ioo,  and  jail  1-6  months. 

West  Virginia.— Fine  Sio-$iooo,  or  jail  not  more  than  12  months. 

Wisconsin.— Y me  not  more  than  S500,  or  jail  not  more  than  1  year. 

Wyoming. — Fine  not  more  than  S500,  or  jail  30  days  to  6  months. 

Arizona.— W\i>deme&nor.  If  on  State  or  U.  S.  lands,  fine  not  more  than 
$1000,  or  jail  not  more  than  i  year,  or  both. 

Ne^v  Mexico.— Fine  $60-8500. 

Oklahoma.— Fine  $io-$5oo,  or  jail  not  more  than  i  year,  or  both. 


144  AGRICULTURE. 


X.    MANURES   AND   FERTILIZERS. 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  experience  among  farmers  that  the 
soil  is  impov'erished  by  continuous  cropping,  and  the  yields 
obtained  therefore  gradually  decreased.  The  decrease  in 
yields  can  only  be  prevented  by  applications  of  farmyard 
manure  or  commercial  fertilizers;  ploughing  and  thorough 
cultivation  of  the  soil  bring  the  land  in  a  better  mechanical 
condition  and  increase  the  amount  of  available  plant  food 
present  in  the  soil,  but  these  operations  are  not  sufficient 
to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  land  so  that  it  will  yield 
equally  well  from  year  to  year  under  otherwise  favorable 
conditions.  Every  crop  harvested  contains  certain  quan- 
tities of  fertilizing  ingredients,  and  taking  away  these 
amounts  in  general  leaves  the  soil  in  a  poorer  condition  for 
the  production  of  crops  than  it  was  before. 

The  fertilizing  ingredients  of  which  the  soil  is  thus  liable 
to  be  robbed  are  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen,  and 
sometimes  lime.  They  are  not  present  as  such  in  the  soil, 
or  in  the  fertilizers  applied  to  the  soil,  but  in  chemical  com- 
binations with  a  large  variety  of  compounds.  The  soil  will 
contain  nearly  all  the  different  elements  which  chemists 
have  so  far  succeeded  in  isolating,  but  it  is  mainly  the 
three  elements,  potassium,  phosphorus,  and  nitrogen, 
which  are  apt  to  be  decreased  in  the  soil  below  the  amounts 
required  for  the  nutrition  of  crops,  or  at  least  of  maxi- 
mum crops.  In  rational  fertilization  the  effort  therefore 
always  is  to  return  to  the  soil  such  quantities  of  fertilizing 
ingredients,  in  the  shape  of  farmyard  manure  or  com- 
mercial fertilizers,  as  will  restore  the  loss  sustained  by  the 
withdrawal  of  the  crops  harvested.  Other  mineral  ingre- 
dients contained  in  the  crops  need  not  generally  be  re- 
turned to  the  soil,  since  they  are  nearly  everywhere  pres- 
ent in  abundance. 


MANURES    AND    FERTILIZERS. 


145 


It  is  the  grand  work  done  for  the  farmer  by  agricultural 
chemistry  during  the  past  half  century  which  has  ex- 
plained the  causes  of  the  decreased  fertility  of  land  due 
to  continuous  cropping,  and  has  given  the  remedies  for 
maintaining  the  fertility.     The  latter  are  as  follows: 

First,  by  selling  only  such  products  from  the  farm  as  will 
deprive  the  soil  of  the  smallest  quantities  of  fertilizing  in- 
gredients, i.e.,  manufactured  products,  like  milk,  cream, 
butter,  meat,  eggs,  rather  than  grain  crops,  hay,  etc.  The 
tables  given  on  pp.  148-151  show  the  amounts  of  fertilizing 
ingredients  removed  in  farm  products  of  various  kinds  and 
deserve  a  close  study  by  all  farmers. 

Secondly,  by  carefully  saving  the  manure  produced  by 
stock — both  liquid  and  solid  (the  former  by  the  use  of  ab- 
sorbents, peat,  land  plaster,  kainit,  superphosphate,  shav- 
ings, etc.,  or  by  building  special  cisterns  for  storing  it;  the 
latter  by  placing  it  under  shelter,  guarding  against  leakage) 
— and  returning  it  to  the  land;  as  the  products  sold  off  the  land 
also  contain  certain  quantities  of  fertilizing  constituents, 
the  loss  must  be  repaired  by  purchase  of  concentrated  food 
stuffs,  at  least  three  fourths  of  whose  valuable  ash  ingredi- 
ents will  go  into  the  manure  and  thus  be  saved  for  crops. 

Thirdly,  by  following  a  rational  system  of  rotation  of 
crops,  and  by  frequent  culture  of  leguminous  crops, — 
clovers,  peas,  beans,  etc., — since  these  are  able  to  so  fix 
the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  as  to  render  it  of  value  to  ani- 
mals and  plants. 


APPROXIMATE    LOSSES  OF  FERTILIZING  MATE- 
RIALS  IN  DIFFERENT  SYSTEMS  OF  FARMING. 

(Snyder.) 


System  of  Farming. 


All  grain-farming 

Mixed  grain-  and  general  farming... 
Mixed  potato-  and  general  farming.. 

Stock-farming 

Dairy-farming 


Nitrogen. 


lbs. 
5600 
2600 
2300 

900 
800 


•  Gain. 


Phosphoric 
Acid. 


lbs. 
2500 
1000 
1000 
50* 
75' 


Potash. 


lbs. 
4200 
1000 
2400 
60 
85 


146 


AGKICULTUKE. 


The  figures  given  show  the  approximate  losses  on  a 
l6o-acre  farm  under  the  different  rj-stems  of  farming. 
With  stoclc-  and  dairy-farming,  as  well  as  partly  in  mixed 
grain-  and  general  farming,  the  loss  of  nitrogen  may  be 
avoided  by  growing  clover.  In  stock  and  dairy-farming, 
therefore,  no  loss  of  fertility  will  occur  under  these  con- 
ditions when  all  the  skim-milk  is  fed  on  the  farm  and  a 
part  of  the  grain  is  exchanged  fur  more  concentrated  milled 
products,  but  there  will  on  the  contrary  be  a  constant 
gain  of  fertility  to  the  soil.  (See  Bull.  41,  Minn.  Exp. 
Station.) 

AVKRAGE    CHKMICATi    COMPOSITION    OF 
AMERICAN    SOILS. 

(King.) 


' 

13 

J*       Insoluble 
n           Residue. 

"^       Water  and 
">            Organic 
S           Matter. 

x: 
1/1 
a 

0 
Per  Cl. 

03 
•o 
0 

Per  ct. 

a 

.2 
'3 

c 
tx 

CO 

0 

u 

0 
a"? 

IT'    u 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Sandy  soils  . . 

93  21 

2.61 

.121 

.051 

.085 

.048 

.0S7 

Clayey  soils 

68.21 

6.53 

.319 

.123 

.6.7 

.456 

.141 

Humus  soils 

35.89 

'3  94 

.639 

.lOQ 

3.786 

.886 

.150 

1-Ofss  soils     .. 

68.85 

1. 21 

•435 

.165 

5.820 

3.692 

.200 

Huinni  soils... 

84.03 

364 

.216 

.Oyl 

.108 

.225 

•'13 

And  soils 

70-57 

1        4-95 

.729 

.264 

1.362 

1.411 

.117 

Fertile   soils   contain   the   following   percentages   of   dififerent 
components,  according  to  Snyder  (averages  for  200  samples) : 


Per  cent 

Insoluble  matter 79-95 

Potash 29 

Soda 25 

Lime 2.  16 

Magnesia 55 

Iron  oxide 2 .  68 


Per  cent 

Alumina S .  20 

Phosphoric  acid 24 

Sulphur  trioxide 03 

Carbon  dioxide 1.12 

Volatile  matter 7 .  00 


99-47 


Volatile   matter  contained:     Humus,   3.35   per  cent;     Nitrogen,   0.29 
per  cent. 


MANURFS    AND    FERTILIZERS. 


147 


MANUKIAIi  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 


Chart  sJioin'ug  Pounds  of  Fertilizing  Constituents  of  Feeding 

Stuffs  in  one  Ton,  and  the  Manurial  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs, 

according  to  the  Valuation  given. 

"Nitrogen  Phosphoric  Acid  Potash 

Price  per  pound  12  cts.  4>i  cts.  l^'ots. 

Black  Bar  represents  Majiurial  Value  per  Ton. 

'20     '40     'GO     '80     '100  '120  '140  '160  '  180  '200 lbs. 


Oreen  comfodde  r'^^^^  S1.42 
£Si_1.10 


Oat  fodder 
Green  clover 
Corn  H'agc 
Corn  stalks 

[stofer)  ii— ~ 

Timothy  hay       ^^ 

Red  clover  hay    XT". 

Wheat  straw       ^^ 

Potatoes 

Turnips 
Tndian  corn 
{inaize) 

Wheat 

Ba  ilcy 

Oats 

Rye 

Rice 

Pea  meal  ^ 

Buckwheat  r_ 

Com  ^  cob  meal  ^ 

Com  cob  rj 

Wheat  bran         ^ 


.4.02 
_4.31 


.7.89 


QO_1.22 
EL  .87 

n — r 


1.98 


,  .5, "6 


,6.05 


,4.77 


.0.21 


,5.15 


C^.^ 


.2.SJ 


.9.02 


,  4.ri 
«4.32 


.10.46 


Wheat  middlino'x~ 


Riee  bran 
Linseed  meal 

O.P. 

Xinseed  meal 

N.P. 
Cottonseed  meal 
Cotton  seed  hiilh 
Gluten  meal 
Malt  sprouts 
Brewers'  grain  1: 


P"F-1 

_2.18 

)"'■■■  ■    ■ 

t : --i 

IK  T* 

r         {           ■> 



- — -^T-w-^ 

-     T— 1 

16.77 

in  7(1  —~' 

,2  81 


iiXL 


.12.41 


,11.27 


,2.40 


20   40   60   80  100  120  140  lOO  180  200  Ibfc 


148 


AGRICULTURE. 


FERTILIZING    CONSTITUENTS    OF    FEEDING 
STUFFS   AND    FARM    PRODUCTS. 

(Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Material. 


Green  Fodders. 

Pasture  grass   

Cireeii  fodder  corn 

Sorghum  fodder 

Rye  fodder.   

Oat  fodder 

Timothy  grass 

Red  clover 

White  clover 

Alsike  clover  ....    

Scarlet  clover 

Alfalfa  (lucern)  

Cowpea 

Soja  bean   

Frickly  comfrey 

Corn  silage 


fliiy  and  Dry  Course  Fodders. 

Fodder  corn  (with  ears)    ..    .. 

Corn  stover  (without  ears) 

Hungarian  grass 

Common  millet   

Hay  of  mixed  grasses  

Red-top • .. 

Timoihy 

Red  clover. 

Mammoth  red  clover 

White  clover 

Scarlet  clover 

Alsike  clover 

Alfalfa 

Barley  straw 

"      chaff 

Wheat  straw 

'•       chaff , 

Rye  straw.. 

Oat       "     

Buckwheat  hulls 


Rrots,  Bull's,  Tubers,  etc. 

Potatoes 

Sweet  potatoes  

Red  beets 

Yellow  fodder  beets 

Sugar  beets 

Maneel-wurzels 

'i'urnips 

Rutabagas .    

Carrots 


per  ct. 

63.1 
78.6 
82.2 
62.1 

83-4 
66.9 
80.0 


7.S-3 
78  8 

73-2 
84.4 
78.0 


7-85 
9.12 
7  69 

9-75 

II  99 

7.71 

7.52 

"•33 
II  .41 


18  30 
9.94 

6.55 

11.44 

13  08 

12.56 

8.05 

7 .61 

9.09 

11.90 


79.24 
71 .26 
87-73 
90  60 
86.95 
87  29 
89.49 

89  '.^ 
89.79 


per  ct. 

3.27 
4.84 


1-31 
215 


1.47 


2.25 
1-47 


2-45 


4.91 

3-74 
6.18 

6.34 
4-59 
4  93 
6.93 
8.72 


7.70 


3-81 
7.18 
325 
4.76 


.89 
.00 
•13 

•95 
.04 


.06 


T. 


per  ct. 
91 
41 
23 

33 
49 
48 

53 
SO 
44 
43 
72 
27 

29 
42 
28 


1.76 
1 .04 

1  20 
1.28 
1. 41 

I-I5 
1 .26 
2.07 

2  23 
2.75 
2.05 

2-34 
2.19 

I-3I 
1. 01 

•59 
•79 
.46 
.62 

•49 


•32 
.24 
•24 


.19 


,19 
•15 


in  o 


per  ct. 
•23 
•J5 

.09 

•15 
•13 
.26 

•13 

.20 
.  II 
•13 
•13 
.10 

.15 
.11 
.11 


.08 
.09 
.09 
.  10 
.09 


.09 


per  ct. 
75 
33 
«3 
73 
38 
76 
46 

24 
20 

49 
56 
31 
53 
75 
37 


.89 
I  40 
I  30 
1.69 
1-55 

I.03 
.90 
2.20 
1.22 
I. 81 
1.31 
2.23 

1.68 

2.09 

•99 

•51 

.42 

■79 

1.24 

52 


.46 
•37 
•44 
.46 
.48 
•38 
•39 
•49 
•51 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZERS. 


140 


FERTILIZING    CONSTITUENTS    OF    FEEDING 
STUFFS   AND  FARM  PRODUCTS.— (G'^///./^v/.) 


Material. 


Grains  and  Other  Seeds, 

Corn 

Sorghum  seed 

Barley 

Oats 

Wheat,  spring 

*'       winter 

Rye 

M  lUet,  common 

Japanese  millet . 

Rice   

Buckwheat 

Soja  beans 


Other  Concentrated  Feeds. 

Corn  meal      

Corn  and  cob  meal 

Ground  oats. 

"        barley 

Wheat  flour 

Pea  meal 

Corn  cobs 

Hominy  feed 

Gluien  meal 

Starch  feed  (glucose  refuse)  . 

Malt  sprouts.       .      

Brewers'  grains,  dry 

'  "       wet 

Rye  bran    

"    middlings .- 

Wheat  bran   

middlings 

Rice  bran 

"    polish 

Buckwheat  middlings 

Cotton-seed  meal 

hulls 

Linseed  meal  (old  process). . . 
"  "     (new  process).. 

Apples,  fruit 

Apple  pomace 


Dairy  Products,  etc. 

Whole  milk    

Skim  milk 

Cifam   

Buttermilk .. 

Whey   

Bnlter 

("iieese 

I.  ve  cattle 

Sheep 

Swine      


i8, 
9- 

75- 


14 
oi 
12.50 
12.54 
11.74 

9.18 
10.20 
10.30 
r4.70 

7.81 


87. 
90. 

74- 
90, 
92, 
79' 
33 
50 
44 
42 


1. 41 


3-37 
2.06 


.82 


•73 


12.48 
3-92 

4  60 
3-52 
6.25 
2.30 
12.94 
9.00 
1 .40 

6-95 
2.40 
6.08 
5-37 
•39 
.27 


■75 
.80 

•50 
.70 
.60 

•15 
2. 10 

4  40 
2.90 
1.80 


i  . 

0 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 

per  ct.  pe 

r  ct. 

1.82 

70 

1.48 

81 

1-51 

79 

2.06 

82 

2.36 

70 

2.36 

89 

1.76 

82 

2.04 

85 

1-73 

69 

1.08 

18 

1.44 

44 

5  •SO    I 

87 

1.58 

63 

1.41 

57 

1.86 

77 

'•55 

66 

2.21 

57 

3.08 

82 

•50 

06 

1.63 

98 

5-03 

33 

2 .62 

29 

3-55    I 

43 

3.62    I 

03 

.89 

3^ 

2.32    2 

28 

1.84    I 

26 

2.67    2 

89 

2.63 

95 

.71 

29 

1.97    2 

67 

1.^8 

68 

6.79    2 

88 

.69 

25 

5-43    I 

.66 

5.78    I 

•83 

•13 

.01 

•2J 

.02 

•53 

.19 

•56 

.20 

.40 

.15 

•  48 

•17 

•15 

•  U 

.12 

04 

3^93 

.60 

2  48     I 

.76 

»-95    » 

•13 

1.76 

•73 

per  ct. 

.40 

•42 

.48 

62 

39 
61 

54 
36 
38 
09 
21 
99 


.40 
•47 
•59 
•34 
•54 
.99 
.60 
•49 
•05 
•15 

1.63 
.09 
.05 

1 .40 
.81 

i.6x 
.63 
.24 
•71 
•34 
•87 

1 .02 

^•37 

1-.39 

•19 

•'3 


.18 
•^9 
•13 
.16 
.18 
.04 
.  12 
.16 
.14 
.  10 


150 


AGRICULTURE. 


AMOUNT     OF     SOIL    INGREDIENTS    WITHDKAAVN 
BY   VARIOUS    CROPS,  IN   LBS.  PER   ACRE. 

(HiLGARD.) 


Crops. 


Grapes,  i.ooo  lbs  

Crop  of  10,000  lbs 

Seeds,  646  lbs 

Flesh,  9, 154  lbs 

Wood,  2,010  lbs  

Prunes,  1,000  lbs 

Crop  of  30,000  lbs 

Pits,  1,635  lbs.    

Flesh,  28,365  lbs 

Apricots,  1,000  lbs 

Crop  of  30,000  lbs  

Pits.  1,740  lbs   ...    

Flesh,  28,260  lbs 

Oranges,  1,000  lbs 

Crop  of  20,000  lbs 

Seeds.  240  lbs  

Flesh  and  rind,  19,760  lbs 

Roots,  percentage 

Stems,  " 

Leaves  "  

Olives,  1,000  lbs 

Crop  of  2,200  lbs 

Pits,  429  lbs 

Flesh,  1,771  lbs     

Leaves.  4,400  lbs   

Wood.  11,000  lbs 

Wheat,  1,000  lbs.  (whole  plant).. 

Crop  of  4,800  lbs.  (hay) 

Grain,  20  bushels 

Straw,  3,600  lbs   

Alfalfa,  1,000  lbs     

Crop  of  12,000  lbs 

Sugar  beets  (fresh),  1,000  lbs. , . . 

Crop  of  72,000  lbs 

R'  )ots,  40,000  1  bs 

Tops,  32,000  lbs 

Ramie,  i. 000  lbs 

Crop  of  14.25  tons.    

Leaves.  4.25  tons 

Stalk  (without  bark),  7.25  tons. 

Bark    (cuticle    and    fibre),    2.75 

tons , 

Cotton,  1,000  lbs  

Crop  of  3,200  lbs 

Leaves,  400  lbs 

Stems,  1,200  lbs 

Seeds,  800  lbs , 

Burs,  400  lbs 

Lint,  400  lbs .... 


53-42 

3-03 

I 20. 90 

8  60 

112.30 

5.16 

154.80 

12.25 

M2-55 

432 

86.40 

6.90 

79-50 
roo. 12 
100.00 

99.91 

94.63 
208.18 
19325 

J4-56 
190. 16 
123.18 

51.26 
246.04 

24.00 
222.04 

65.00 
780 . 00 

18.73 

1349-72 

287.00 

1062. 72 

75-19 

2M3-57 

1641-35 

410.48 

91-74 

54-26 
173.60 
48.69 
38-44 
29-37 
52.01 

5-09 


5.00 

50.00 

1.48 

47-44 
15.69 

2.66 
79.70 

2.06 
77.64 

2.83 
84-98, 

1-36 
83.62! 

2.11J 
42.28 

2  74 
39-54: 
15  43 
11.69 
16.51 

8-551 

18     8x: 

.1 


19. 

I  . 

18. 

49- 

55 

56. 
2. 
5- 
4- 


66 


6.77 
12 .04 
58-05 
24.46 

9.15]     2 
43.921  II 

7.85I 
36.07^   10 
13.49    22 
161 .88  274 

538  3 
387.44  224 
152.00  16 
235.44  208 
8.84  23 
251.98  657 
68.13  566 
155-99;   71 


27.86 
11.00 
35-26 

7-99 
9.17 

8.99 
7.42 
1.69 


19.14 
13-76 
44.04 

15-03 
10.58 

3-07 

14.16 

1.20 


1.52 
15.20 
5-75 
8.93 
8.74 

•53 

15-95 

2.80 

13-15 
-71 

21.38 

5  36 
16.02 

•53 

10.60 

1.61 

8  99 

13-47 

17.09 

3-27 
1. 18 

2-59 
2  40 

■19 
20.08 
14.87 

4-13 
19.80 
11.90 

7  90 

6-43 
77.16 

1.61 

116.16 

36.00 

80.16 

6  46 

155-70 

77-13 
67.71 

10.86 
7-03 

22.54 

4- 


.  10 
1 .00 


.61 


.22 
.02 
.20 


•  94 
•19 
•75 
•04 
.80 
.04 
.76 
•7^ 
•'5 
4-03 
•23 
-50 
.48 
.02 
.28 

i-65 

7  89 

.02 

7  87 

1-59 

19.08 

.86 

61. 63 

12. 00 

49  68 

1. 12 

51-85 

41-56 

2.50 

7-79 
2.58 
8.27 
2-75 
2-54 

.48 
2.14 

-36 


tD 


I  .70 
17.00 


1 .48 
44.40 
10.30 
34.10 

2.29 
68.70 
15.00 
53-70 

1.83 
36.60 


5-85 

12.86 
9.67 

3-19 
69  go 
117.67 

8.75 

42.00 

24  00 

18.00 

12.96 

155-52 

2.38 

173.40 

60.40 

113.00 

12.97 

369.70 

206  10 

105.85 

57-75 


29.20 


MANURES   AND    FERTILIZERS. 


J  51 


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152 


AGRICULTURE. 


MINIMUM     AMOUNT     OF     FARMYARD     MANURE 

required  to  rejilace  the  Ingredients  abstracted  from 
the  Soil  by  an  Acre  of  Different  Crops.     (McConnell.) 


Wheat 5  tons. 

Barley 5 

Oats 5 

Meadow  hay 8 

Red  clover I2 

Beans lo 


Turnips 15  tons. 

Swedes 10 

Mangolds 20 

Potatoes 10 

Cabbage 25 

Carrots 10 


AMOUNT   AND  QUALITY  OF  MANURE  PRODUCED 

BY    STOCK. 

The  various  classes  of  farm  animals  will  produce  about 
the  following  quantities  of  solid  and  liquid  manure  during 
a  year,  viz.: 

Solid  Manure.  Liquid  Manure 

Horse 12,000  lbs.  3,000  lbs. 

Cow 20,000    "  8,000    " 

Sheep 760   "  380   " 

Pig 1,800    "  1,200    *' 

Since  a  considerable  portion  of  the  manure  is  lost  while 
the  animal  is  working  or  is  out-doors,  the  quantities  secured 
in  the  manure-pile  will  not  come  up  to  these  figures. 

The  quantities  of  urine  voided  by  farm  animals  during 
twenty-four  hours  are  on  the  average  as  follows,  accord- 
ing to  Wilckens  :  cows,  15-20  lbs.;  horses,  20-27  lbs.; 
sheep,  2  lbs.;  swine,  7-9  lbs.  The  capacity  for  liquid 
manure-tanks  or  cisterns  intended  to  hold  the  fluid  excre- 
ments of  a  herd  of  a  certain  size  may  readily  be  calculated 
on  a  basis  of  these  figures  (see  tables  on  p.  182),  6000  lbs. 
(about  720  gallons)  of  urine  per  1000  lbs.  live  weight  of 
cattle,  is  a  liberal  estimate. 

The  quality  of  the  manure  produced  will  depend  on  the 
character  of  the  feeding  and  the  kind  of  stock  kept.  Rich 
feeding  produces  a  rich  manure,  since,  as  shown  in  the 
table  given  below,  only  a  relatively  small  portion  of  the 
valuable  fertilizing  ingredients  of  the  food  is  retained  in 


MANL'KLIS    AXD    FERIILTZERS. 


153 


the  bodies  of  the  animals,  or  is  taken  away  in  the  products 
sold.  Rich  feeding,  therefore,  has  a  beneficial  influence  in 
two  directions,  larger  yields  of  products  being  obtained, 
and  a  better  quality  of  manure  being  produced. 


COMPOSITION,  AMOUNT,  AND  VALUE  OF  MANURE 

Proiluccd  by  Different  Kinds  of  Farm  Animals. 

(Results   of   experiments   conducted   at   Cornell    University    Experiment 

St  ition.) 


Ana 

lysis  and  Value  per  Ton  of 
Manure. 

Amount  and  Value  per 

1000  lbs.  Live  Weight 

per  D  ly. 

Water. 

£  c 

1   'J    . 

-^    fc^    w 

a.  ^< 
Per  ct. 

1J5 

--> 

Per  ct. 

Value 

per 

Ton.* 

1   Pounds 
per 
Day. 

P  5;  X 

>       d 

Cents. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Sheep  . . 

59- S2 

.77 

9-39 

59 

S3 .30 

34   I 

7.2 

$  'f'  09 

Calves 

77  73 

:;o 

■'7 

53 

2.t8 

67  8 

6.7 

■214'^ 

PiRS     . 

74   13 

84 

■  ^Q 

32 

3  '-'<J 

8j  6 

16.7 

60.88 

Cows .  .  . 

75-25 

4^ 

.29 

44 

2 .02 

74-1 

8.0 

20. 27 

horses  . 

48.69 

49 

.26 

48 

2.21 

48.8 

7.6 

27.74 

QUANTITIES  OF   NITROGEN   AND  ASH  CONSTITU- 

ents   Voided    by    Animals    or    Obtained    in    Animal 
Products.      (Lawes  and  Gilbert.) 


Horse  at  rest   . . 
H  >r-,e  ;'t  work. 
Fulieninj''  oxen  . 
1     ttenin','- sheep. 
1  attoning  pigs. 
>!  i lining  cows.. .. 


Percentage  of  Nitrogen. 


Obtain- 
ed as 

Animal 
Prod- 
uct. 


None. 

None. 

3-9 

4-3 

147 

24-5 


Voided 
as  Solid 
Excre- 
ment. 


43-0 
29.4 
22.6 
16.7 
22 .0 
i8.i 


Voided 

as 
Liquid 
Excre- 
ment. 


57-0 
70.6 

73-5 
79.0 

63 -3 
57-4 


In  Total 
Excre- 
ment. 


100.  o 
1 00.0 
96. 1 
95-7 
85.3 
75-5 


Percentage  of  Ash 
Constituents. 


Obtained 
as  Live 
Weight 
or  Milk. 


None. 

None. 
23 
3-8 
4.0 

TO.  3 


Voided 
as  Excre- 
ment or 
Perspira- 
tion. 


100. o 

ICO.  9 

97  7 
96.2 
96.0 
89.7 


*  Vahiing  nitrogen  at   15  cents,  ptiospnoric  acid  at  6  cents,  and  puta&li 
at  4i  cents  per  pound 


154 


AGRICULTURE. 


PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION   OF    COMMERCIAL 
FERTILIZING    3IATERIALS.    (Beal.) 


3 

"o 

c 
0 

u 

tn 
0 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

Name. 

•a 

tr. 

u 

> 
X 

0 

V 

B 

Altrae  {Lytigbia  maj'uscula). 
Ammonite   

16.26 
5.88 

4-25 
"-33 

•79 

•  19 

3-43 

36.08 

.10 

.40 

1. 14 

1-51 
1.70 
3.80 

35-89 
28.28 
17.00 
23.25 

17. 60 
20.10 
29.90 

2 .06 

Aslies,  anthracite  coal 

.10 
.40 
1.20 
1.27 
5-25 
1.31 

"      bituminous  "       ..  .. 

"      lime-kiln — 

"      wood,  leached 

"           "      unleached .... 

15-45 
30.22 
12.50 
40.09 
7.00 
4.60 

8.20 

48.50 
28.08 
34.00 

44.89 

B.it  guano   

Bone-ash 

2-37 

1.24 

Bone-black 

"          "    dissolved 

15.40 
.40 

13 

1.30 

7.60 
1 ' 

•53 

Bone  meal 

"          "     dissolved 

"           "     free  from  fat   . . . 

7-50 

4.05 

2.60 
6.20 
1.70 

"          "    from  glue  factory 
Carnallite.                

13.60 

Caribbean  guano 

Castor  pomace 

Colton-huP  ashes   

7-31 
9-50 
7.80 
7-75 

24.27 
12.50 

12.75 
81.19 
22.28 
10.17 
3.20 

87-75 
22.70 
4.82 
7.27 
1-50 
1.50 
1.50 

1-50 
12.09 

13-32 
50.00 
60.00 
2.00 
7.60 
1.40 
8  54 

26.77 
1-75 
8.85 
2.88 
3.10 

13-35 

1. 91 

8.25 

.07 

39-95 

5-50 

"6'.79 

4.30 

1.67 

10.52 

7-25 
•35 

1. 10 

22.75 

1-77 

1-50 

•32 

125 

6.50 

9.60 

Cotton-seed  meal,  decort   . . 

"         "        ''      undecort.. 

Cuba  guano    

•55 

2.60 

Dried  blood. . 

Dried  fish 

Eel -grass  (z^j^^ra  marina).. 
G.is  lime 

•51 
43.66 

Horn  and  hoof  waste   

13-25 



.20 

1.83 

Kainit   

i3^54 
.24 

1.15 

.40 

2  82 

Kelp  {laniinaTia) 

.06 

Kieserite 

Krugile 

Lobster  shells   

Marls,  Kentucky 

•'     Maryland  and  Virginia 
*'     New  Jersey  ^reen  sand 
"     North  Carohna 

Meat  scrap   — 

Mona  Island  guano  

Aluck 

4.50 

10.44 

.76 

1. 10 

.40 

15  70 
12.12 

8.42 

•1-3 
•2-5 

3-5-7 
.2-1.5 

12.45 
22.24 

3-34 
0-40 
1-9 
5-45 

3-52 
.2 

.0-2 

.1-4 

0-.4 

2.07 

21.88 

.  10 

.10 

•15 

•35 

51.48 

37-49 

Mud,  salt - 

.90 

Muriate  of  potash . . 

Navassa  phosphate   

Nitrate  of  soda 

34.27 

37-45 

Oleomargarine  refuse 

.88 

MANURES   AND    FERTILIZERS. 


155 


PERCENTAGE   COMPOSITION    OF   COMMEKCIAL 
FERTILIZING     MATERIALS— C^w/zw^^^. 


Name. 


Oyster-shell  lime*.     

Peat   

Peruvian  guano. 

I'hosphates,   Florida 

Plaster,  puret.    . .        -    

Seaweed 

"        ashes.     

"        mixed 

Sewage  sludge,  precipitated 
Soot     

S.  Carolina  rock,  dissolved.. 
"  '■  "       ground.... 

Spent  tan-bark  ashes 

Sumac  waste         .- 

Sulfate  of  ammonia   

Sulfate  of  potash  and  mag- 
nesia      

Sulfate  of  potash,  high  grade 

Sylvanite     . . 

Tankage   . .      

Thomas  slag .... 

Tobacco  stalks.    

stems .   

Wool  washings 

Wool  waste . 


Cotiipoaition  of  Farm 
Mitnures. 

Barnyard  manure,  average.. 
Cattle  excrement,  solid, fresh 
Cattle  urine,  fresh   ..     .... 

Hen  manure,  fresh 

Horse  excrement,  solid 

Horse  urine,  fresh 

Human  excrement,  solid.... 

Human  urine 

Pigeon  manure,  dry 

Poudrette,  night  soil    

Sheep  excrement,  solid. fresh 

Sheep  urine,  fresh    

Stable  manure,  mixed 

Swine  exert  meat,  solid, fresh 
Swine  urine,  fresh   


15.00 

61  -  50 

14.81 

2.2s 


St.go 

i  47 
81  50 
88.49 

5-54 


1.50 

3.61 

63  .06 


4-75 
2-54 
7-25 
10.00 
1.45 
6. 


68.87 


60.00 


77.20 
95.  go 
10.00 
50.00 


73.27 


•85 

7-35 


.29 


•73 
•05 


Phosphoric  Acid. 


•65 


I  19 
20.50 


6.70 


3-7' 
2-35 


6.50 


.49 
.29 

•58 
1 .10 

.44 

1-55 

1 .00 

.60 

3.20 

.80 

•55 

1-95 

.50 

.60 

•43 


.40 
.92 

1.50 
•05 

1.83 


3.20 


2.04 
3-25 


25-50 
33  40 
16.65 


e: 


4.10 


II  .60 
.27      .07 


•30 
.00 


5.10 
3.06 


5  -02 
8.20 
3-92 

X\  .20 


•43 

.  lol 

•49 

•56 

•35 

1.50 

•25 
.20 

1 .00 
•30 
•15 

2.26 
.60 

•13 
.83 


.08 
•5-30 
24  50 


15.20 

28.0 

1.6 


11.80 

23-49 
.65 
.70 


•35 


'7 


55 

00 

28 

50 

20 

93 

6.06 
■23 

1.58 


41.87 

33-46 
1.14 


2.57 


48.66 

2.22 
4.20 


3.  10 
.80 


*  18.5  percent  carbonate. 

+  Nova  Scotia  plaster  contains  94 
carbonate  of  lime;  Onondaga  and 
18-28  per  cent  carbonate  of  lime. 

%  Sometimes  as  high  as  5  per  cent. 


per  cent  pure  gypsum  and  4  per  cent 
Cayuga,  65-75   per  cent   gypsum  and 


156 


AGRICULTURE. 


EXHAUSTION    OF    FKIiTILlZEKS.     (Scotch  Authority.) 
ON  CULTIVATED   CLAY    LOAM. 


Kind  of  Fertilizer. 


Lime 

Bone  meal 

Phosphatic  (juanos 

Dissolved  bones  and  plain  superphos- 
phates    

High-grade  ainmoniated  fertilizers, 
guano,  etc 

Cotton-seed  meal 

Stable  manure 


J=  5 

(I] 


Per  Cent  remaining  in  the 

Soil  Unexhausted  at 

End  of  Each  of  First 

Six  Years. 


I 

2 
65 

3 

4 
45 

5 

80 

55 

35 

60 

30 

20 

10 

50 

30 

20 

10 

20 

10 

5 

30 

20 

40 

30 

20 

10 

60 

30 

20 

10 

25 


ON   CULTIVATED   LIGHT  OR   MEDIUM    SOILS. 


Lime 

Bone  meal   

Phosphatic  guanos      .. 

Dissolved  bones  and   plain  superphos- 
phate    

High-grade  ammoniates,  guanos 

Cotton-seed  meal 

Stable  manure   . . 


10 

75 

60 

40 

30 

20 

4 

60 

30 

10 

4 

50 

•ao 

10 

3 

20 

10 

5 

3 
4 

30 
40 

20 
30 

20 

10 

4 

60 

30 

10 

15 


ON   CULTIVATED   PASTURE   LAND. 


Lime. ... 

Bone  meal 

Phosphatic  guanos  

Dissolved  bone,  etc 

High-grade  ammoniated  guanos 

Cotton-seed  meal 

Stable  manure 


70 
50 
40 
20 
20 
30 
50 


60 
40 
30 


20 
40 


30 


40 


Sulfate  of  ammonia,  nitrate  of  soda,  sulfate,  nitrate, 
and  muriate  of  potash  are  generally  held  to  be  entirely 
exhausted  by  the  crops  grown  the  season  of  their  applica- 
tion. 


MANURES   AND    FERTILIZERS. 


157 


EQUIVALiENT   QUANTITIES   OF  FERTIIilZING 
MATEKIALiS.     (W^nEELER  and  Hartwell.) 


For 


loo  lbs.  nitrate  of 
soda 

loo  lbs.  sulfate 
of  ammonia 

loa  lbs  dried 
blood 

loo  lbs.  cotton- 
seed meal 

loo  lbs.  diss  phos- 
phate rock 

loo  lbs  diss,  bone 
black 

loo  lbs.  double 
superphosphate 

r 

I 

ICO   lbs.    tank-    I 


May  be  Substituted  any  One  of  these  Materials. 


age 


i£)o    lbs. 
ground  fi 


dry  j 
fish      ] 


xoo    lbs.    fine-  J 
ground  bone 


76    lbs.    sulfate  of 

ammonia 
132  lbs.  nitrate  of 


soda 
71    lbs 

soda 
43    lbs 


nitrate   of 

nitrate  of 
soda 

76  lbs.  diss,  bone 
black 

131  lbs.  diss,  phos 
phate  rock 

308  lbs  diss,  phos- 
phate rock 


235  lbs.  cotton- 
seed meal. 

311  lbs.  cotton- 
seed mtal 

167  lbs  cotton- 
seed meal 

60  lbs.  dried 
blood 


141     lbs.    dried 

blood 
186    lbs      dried 

blood 
54   lbs.   sulfate   of 

ammonia 

32  lbs.  sulfate  of 
ammonia 

33  lbs.  double  su- 
perphosphate 

43  lbs.  double  su- 
perphosphate 

235  lbs.  double 
superphosphate 

39  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda  and  38  lbs.  phosphate  rock. 

29  lbs.  sulfate    of    ammonia    and    38    lbs.   phosphate 
rock. 

55  lbs,  dried  blood  and  38  lbs.  phosphate  rock. 
91  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal  and  38  lbs,  phosphate  rock. 
80  lbs.  dry  ground  fish  and  14  lbs.  phosphate  rock 
33  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda  and  4.5  lbs.  line-ground  bone. 

48  lbs    nitrate  of  soda^nd  31  lbs.  diss,  phosphate  rock 
37  lbs.  sulfate  of  ammonia  and   31  lbs.  diss.  phosph..;>. 

rock. 
68  lbs.  dried  blood  and  31  lbs.  diss,  phosphate  rock 
113  lbs    cotton-seed  meal  and  31  lbs.  diss,  phosphate 

rock. 
80  lbs.  tankage  and  17  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda. 
36  lbs.  fine  fjround  bone  and  44  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda. 
13  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda  and  85  lbs.  diss,  phosphate  rock. 
10  lbs.  sulfate  of  ammonia  and  85  lbs.  diss,  phosphate 

rock. 
18  lbs.  dried  blood  and  85  lbs.  diss,  phosphate  rock. 

30  lbs.  cotton-seed   meal  and  85   lbs.  diss,   phosphate 
rock. 

33  lbs.  tankage  and  72  lbs.  diss,  phosphate  rock. 

27  lbs.  dry  ground  fish  and  76  lbs.  diss,  phosphate  rock 


158 


AGRICULTURE. 


PROPORTION  OF   PLANT  FOOT>  RECOMMENDED 
FOR    CROPS.      (Virginia  Exp.  Station.) 


Crop. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 

Potash 

Crop. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 

Potash 

Alfalfa 

Barley 

Buckwheat  . 
Cabbage .  .  . 

Clover  

Corn 

Cotton 

% 
I 

4 
4 
6 
I 
3 
3 

% 
8 

7 
8 

7 
8 
8 
8 

% 

lO 

8 
9 
9 

lO 

6 
4 

Oats 

Peanuts  .  .  . 
Potatoes  .  . 

Rye 

Tobacco  .  . . 

Tomatoes .  . 

'■  Wheat  .... 

% 
4 

2 

4 
4 

S 
4 
3 

% 
9 

lO 

7 
9 
6 
6 
8 

% 
6 

ID 
lO 

5 

lO 

7 
4 

VALUATION    OF    MANURES  AND   FERTILIZERS. 


The  valuation  of  fertilizing  ingredients  shown  below  (see 
p.  159)  is  the  one  agreed  upon  by  a  number  of  Eastern  experi- 
ment and  fertihzer  control  stations  after  a  careful  study  of  the 
retail  prices  of  crude  products  of  fertilizers  during  the  six  months 
prior  to  March  i,  1908.  It  expresses  the  commercial  value  of 
the  fertilizers,  and  not  thei« agricultural  value;  the  latter  will 
vary  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  land  and  the  character 
of  the  crops  grown.  Fertilizers  are  sold  in  States  having  fer- 
tilizer control,  on  the  basis  of  a  guarantee  of  a  minimum  con- 
tent of  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  nitrogen,  singly  or  com- 
bined, and  it  is  the  oflfice  of  the  fertilizer  control  stations  to 
watch  that  goods  offered  for  sale  in  their  respective  States  are  up 
to  the  guarantee.  Farmers  living  in  States  where  fertilizer  laws 
have  been  enacted  (Alabama,  Arkansas,  California,  Connecticut, 
Delaware,  Florida,  Georgia,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Kentucky, 
Loui.siana,  Maine,  Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Mis- 
sissippi, Missouri,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York, 
North  Carolina,  North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode 
Island,  South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Texas,  Vermont,  Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  Wisconsin)  should  only  buy  fertilizers  on  guar- 
antee, and  should  examine  the  fertilizer  bulletins  published  by 
their  respective  stations  to  ascertain  that  the  goods  put  on  the 
market  are  not  below  the  guarantee,  and  that  the  valuation 
price  is  not  below  the  selling  price  of  the  article.  Where  a  reason- 
able suspicion  of  fraud  exists,  apply  to  the  director  of  the  experi- 
ment station  for  information  concerning  the  goods  offered  for 
sale  or  the  firm  placing  them  on  the  market. 


MANUKES    AND    FERTILIZERS.  159 


TRADE    VALUES    OF    FERTILIZING    INGREDIENTS 
IN  RAW    MATERIALS    AND    CHEMICALS,     1913. 

Adopted  by  Eastern  Experiment  Stations  for    estimating  the  value  of 
mixed  commercial  fertilizers. 

Cents 
Nitrogen —  per  lb 

in  nitrates .^ 18.5 

in  ammonia  salts 18.5 

Organic  Nitrogen — 

in  dry  and  fine-ground  fish,  meat,  and  blood 20 

in  fine  bone  and  tankage  and  in  mixed  fertilizers 19 

in  coarse  bone  and  tankage 15 

in  cotton  seed  meal  and  castor  pomace 20 

Phosphoric  Acid — 

soluble  in  water 4.5 

soluble  in  neutral  ammonium-citrate  solutij.^. 4 

in  dry  fine-ground  fish,  bone,  and  tankngf 4    ^ 

in  coarse  fish,  bone,  tankage,  and  ashes 3.5 

in  cotton-seed  meal  and  castor  pomace 4  ' 

in   mixed   fertilizers,   if   insoluble   in    anriionium-citrate 
solution 2 

Potash — 

as  high-grade  sulfate,  and  in  forms  free  from  muriate. ...  $\ 

as  muriate 4I 

in  cotton-seed  meal  and  castor  pomace S 

The  manurial  constitutents  contained  in  feeding  stuffs  may 
be  valued  as  follows: 

Organic  nitrogen 30 

Phosphoric  acid 4 

Potash 5 


160 


AGRICULTUKE. 


CONVERSION  TABLE    FOR    CALCULATING    FER- 
TILIZING   INGREDIENTS. 


Amount  of 


Nitrogen  

Ammonia 

44 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Sulfate  of  ammonia     

Potash  (anhydrous) 

Sulfate  of  potash 

Muriate  of  potiish 

Phosphoric  acid  (anliydrous 

Mono-ralciiim  phosphate   .. 

Di-calcium  phosphate 

Tricalcium  phosphate 

Lime  (calcium  oxid) . . 

Chlorin .    . . . 


Gives  Corresponding  Amount 
of 


Ammonia. 
Nitrate  of  soda. 
Sulfate  of  ammonia. 

Nitrogen. 

Sulfate  of  ammonia. 

Cliiorid  of  ammonia. 

Nitric  acid. 

viirate  of  soda. 

Protein. 

Nitrogen. 
Ammonia. 
Nitrogen. 
Ammonia. 

Sulfate  of  potash. 
Muriate  of  potash. 
Potash. 


Tri-oalcium  phosphate. 
Di-calcium  phosphate. 
Mono-calcium  phosphate. 

Tri-caU  ium  phosphate. 

Phosphoric  acid. 

Tri-calcium  phosphate. 
Carbonate  of  lime. 
Sodium  chlorid. 


PRlCi:S    OF    NITRATE    OF    SODA    ON    THE 

A3IMONIATE  BASIS.      (Chilean  Nitrate  Works.) 
Figured  on  Basis  380  lbs.  Ammonia  in  One  Ton  Nitrate  of  Soda. 


Equivalent 

Price  per 

Price  per 

Price  Am- 

Price Am- 

Equivalent 

Cwt.  of 

Ton  of 

monia  per  Lb. 

monia  per 

Cost  of  Nitro- 

Nitrate. 

Nitrate. 

as  Nitrate. 

Ton  Unit. 

gen  per  Lb. 

$1.80 

$36.00 

$0.0947 

U.894 

$0,115 

1.86 

37.00 

0.0973 

1.946 

0.118 

1  .90 

38.00 

0. 1000 

2.000 

0.122 

1.95 

3Q-00 

0. 1026 

2.052 

0.  125 

2.00 

40.00 

0. 1052 

2.104 

0.128 

2.05 

41  .00 

0. 1078 

2.156 

0.  131 

2.10 

42  .  GO 

0. iios 

2.210 

0.  134 

2.15 

43.00 

0. 1131 

2.262 

0. 137 

2.20 

44.00 

0 . 1 1 5  7 

2.314 

0. 140 

2.25 

45.00 

0. 1 184 

2.368 

0.144 

2.S0 

46.00 

0. 1210 

2.420 

0.147 

2.36 

47.00 

0. 1236 

2.472 

0.150 

2.40 

48.00 

0. 1263 

2.626 

0.153 

2.46 

49.00 

0. 1 289 

2.678 

0. 156 

2.60 

50  .  00 

0. I7T5 

2 .  630 

0  .  T  5  0 

AGRICULTURAL   EIN^GINEERIKQ.  ICl 


XL  AGRICULTURAL   ENGINEERING. 

REASONS    FOK    TILE-DRAINIXG    LAND. 

(Chamberlain.*) 

Land  should  be  drained,  because: 

1.  Tib  drainage  makes  all  tillage  and  ^'arvesting  operations 
easier  and  more  rapid,  physically  and  mechanically. 

2.  Drainage  removes  both  the  excess  surface-water,  and  the 
surplus  water  in  the  soil  and  the  subsoil. 

3.  Drainage  prevents  loss  of  fertility  by  surface  wash. 

4.  Drainage  will  add  fertility  to  the  soil  with  each  rainfall. 

5.  Drainage  helps  to  warm  the  soil  as  well  as  to  dry  it,  giv- 
ing best  conditions  for  plant  growth. 

6.  Drainage  1  ngthens  the  season  of   tillage,  crop,   growth, 
and  harvest. 

7.  Drainage  increases  the  extent  of  root  pasturage. 

8.  Drainage  helps  to  disintegrate  the  soil  and  make  pulveri- 
sation possible. 

g.    Drainage  greatly  diminishes  the  effect  of  frost  in  heaving 
out  wheat,  clover,  etc.,  in  winter  and  spring. 

10.  Drainage  on  clayey  soils  helps  the  crops  to  resist  drought 
better. 

11.  Drainage  often,  though   not  always,  diminishes  the  sud- 
denness and  violence  of  floods. 

12.  Drainage,  both  open  and  with  tiles,  improves  the  health 
of  a  region. 

♦Tile  Drainage,  by  W.  I.  Chamberlain,  Medina.  Ohio,  1891,  35  cents. 


16-? 


AGRICULTURE. 


\  LIMBER   OF  RODS    AND   OF  TILES    PER   ACRE, 

WITH  DRAINS   AT   VARIOUS  DISTANCES 

APART.     (Scott.) 


Distance 

between 

the  Drains. 

Rods 

(51^  Yards) 

per  Acre. 

12-inch 
Tile. 

13-inch 
Tile. 

14-inch 
Tile. 

15-inch 
Tile. 

Feet. 

15 

176 

2904 

2680 

2489 

2323 

18 

146 

2420 

2234 

2074 

1936 

21 

125 

2074 

1915 

1778 

1659 

24 

no 

1815 

1676 

1555 

1452 

27 

07 

1613 

1480 

1383 

1290 

30 

83 

1452 

1340 

1244 

1161 

33 

80 

1320 

12 19 

1131 

1056 

36 

72 

1210 

T117 

1037 

968 

39 

67 

1117 

1031 

957 

893 

42 

62 

«o37 

958 

888 

829 

SIZE    OF    TILE    PIPES 

Required  for  Draining  under  Average  Conditions. 

(Waking.) 

The  drains  being  laid  four  feet,  or  more,  deep,  and  laid  on 
a  well-regulated  fall  of  three  inches  in  a  hundred  feet : 

For    2  acres ij-inch  pipes 


8 

20 

40 

50 

100 


....    2i 

....  3i 
two  3i 
....  6 
....  8 


These  drains  will  remove  the  water  fast  enough  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes,  even  after  heavy  storms;  if  the  pipes  are  securely- 
laid,  the  drains  will  only  be  benefited  by  the  occasional  cleaning 
they  will  receive  when  running  "  more  than  full." 


AGRICULTURAL    ENGINEERING. 


163 


Table  of  Size  of  Tile  Pipe  of  Main  Drain. 

(MCCONNELL.) 


Fall. 


foot  in 


Acres  Drained. 


3-inch 
Tile. 


20 

30 
40 

50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 

150 

200 

250, 

300 

400. 

500 

600 

800 

1000 

1500 

2000 


18.6 

15 -I 
12.9 
II. 9 
10.9 
10. o 
9-3 
8.1 

7-3 
6.7 

5-7 
5-1 
4.6 
4.1 
3-7 
3-3 
2.9 
2.6 
2.1 
1.9 


4-inch 

6-inch 

8-inch 

lo-inch 

Tile. 

Tile. 

Tile. 

Tile. 

26.8 

74-4 

150.0 

270.0 

21.8 

60.4 

128.0 

220.8 

1S.6 

51.6 

108.8 

189.6 

17.0 

47-7 

98.0 

170.4 

15-6 

43-4 

90.0 

156.0 

14-5 

39-9 

83.0 

144.4 

13 -4 

37-2 

77,0 

135-0 

12.6 

35 -o 

72-5 

127.0 

II. 9 

331 

69.2 

120.6 

9-5 

26.6 

56.0 

97-3 

8.2 

22.8 

48.0 

83-9 

7-5 

20.4 

42.4 

74-4 

6.9 

18.4 

38.3 

655 

5-9 

16.5 

32.6 

60.3 

5-2 

14.8 

30.1 

54-c^ 

4-7 

13-3 

28.0 

48.6 

41 

11.4 

34.0 

41.9 

3-7 

10.2 

21.2 

37-2 

30 

8.5 

16.8 

30.8 

2.8 

7-4 

150 

25.0 

12-inch 
Tile. 


426.0 
346.0 
298.4 
269.0 
246.0 
228.1 
213.0 
200.5 
190.5 
154-4 
132-5 
117. o 
107.0 

90.7 
81.6 
74.0 
65.0 
56.0 
47.0 
40.8 


Rule  for  Obtaining-  Size  of  Main  Pipes. — Multiply  the 
square  root  of  the  number  of  small  drains  (of  fair  average 
length)  by  the  diameter  of  small  pipes;  the  quotient  gives  the 
diameter  of  main. 

If  the  distance  apart  of  drains  in  feet  be  denoted  by  F,  that 
in  links  by  L,  and  the  length  of  drains  in  chains  per  acre  by  C, 
then 

__  660  _  1000 


164 


AGRICULTURE. 


NUMBER  or  ACRES  AVHICH  A  TILE  OF  A  GIVEN 
DIAMETER  AND  PER  CENT  GRADE  WILL 
DRAIN  WHEN  USED  AS  AN  OUTLET.     (Elliott.) 


Table   1.  — Discharge  of  Tile  from  4  to  20  inches  in 
Diameter  on  a  Grade  of  1  foot  per  100  feet. 


Diameter  of 
Tile,  Inches. 

Discharg:e  in 
Cubic  Feet 
per  Second. 

Diameter  of 
Tile,  Inches. 

Dischargfe  in 
Cubic  Feet 
per  Second. 

4 
6 
8 
9 

lO 

o.i6 
0.49 
I. II 

1-53 
2.05 

12 

15 
18 
20 

3-40 
6.29 

IO-37 
13-85 

Table  2. — Grades  per  100  feet,  and  their  Square  Roots. 


Grade  per 
100  Feet 

Grade  in 

Inches 

(approx- 

Square 
Root  of 

Grade  per 
TOO  Feet 

Grade  in 
Inches 
(approx- 
imated). 

Square 
Root  of 

in  Feet. 

Grade. 

in  Feet. 

Grade. 

imated). 

0.04 

H 

0.200 

0.40 

4% 

0.633 

.05 

^ 

.224 

•45 

sYs 

.671 

.06 

H 

•  245 

.50 

6 

.707 

.08 

% 

.283 

•55 

6% 

.742 

.09 

I 

.300 

.60 

7% 

•775 

.10 

'V^ 

.316 

.65 

7H 

.806 

.12 

tH 

•  346 

.70 

m 

.837 

.14 

zH 

•374 

•75 

9, 

.866 

.16 

2 

.400 

.80 

9% 

.894 

.18 

l^ 

.424 

•85 

^°H 

.922 

.20 

•447 

.90 

10% 

•949 

•25 

K. 

.500 

•95 

11^ 

•975 

.30 

3% 

•548 

1. 00 

12 

1. 000 

•35 

4^ 

•592 

To  determine  the  number  of  acres  that  a  tile  main  of 
given  size  and  grade  will  drain,  multiply  the  discharge  of 
the  tiles,  according  to  size  (see  Table  i),  by  the  square  root 
of  the  grade  upon  which  it  is  proposed  to  lay  the  main 
(Table  2).  When  it  is  desired  that  the  main  shall  carry  i 
inch  in  depth  per  acre  in  twenty-four  hours,  multiply  this 
result  by  24  ;  if  one-half  inch,  multiply  by  48  ;  if  one-fourth 
inch,  multiply  by  96.     (Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  40.) 


AGRICULTURAL    EXGIXEERIXG. 


165 


NUMBER    OF    ACRES    DRAINED    BY    TILES    REMOVING 
1/4-INCH    DEPTH    OF    WATER   IN    24   HOURS. 

(ASHBAUGH.) 


Grades. 

Diameters  of  Tile  Drains,  Inches. 

Per 

In.  per 

cent. 

Rod. 

3 

4 

6 

8 

10 

I  2 

15 

18 

20 

22 

24 

0.03 
0.05 

37 
49 

59 

109 
131 

I  59 

205 
264 

254 

•J  Tn 

5 

13 

'28' 

75 

219 

332  411 

0. 10 

^ 

4 

7 

19 

40 

69 

109 

186 

289 

373 

471 

582 

o-iS 

9 

4 

9 

24 

49 

8S 

132 

232 

355 

458 

577 

713 

0.  20 

f 

5 

10 

28 

56 

97 

153 

264 

410 

529 

667 

823 

0.30 

A 

6 

12 

33 

69 

119 

188 

322 

502 

648 

808 

1008 

0 .  40 

16 

7 

14 

39 

79 

138 

216 

371 

580 

748 

942 

I165 

0.  50 

I 

8 

16 

44 

89 

154 

246 

416 

648 

838 

1050  1300 

0.60 

I^ 

9 

17 

48 

97 

169 

266 

457 

710 

911 

11541422 

0.  70 

li 

10 

19 

50 

105 

182 

287 

488 

768 

988 

1242  1549 

0.80 

'P 

10 

20 

55 

114 

195 

307 

526 

822 

1059 

13321645 

0.90 

li 

10 

21 

59 

119 

207 

326 

558 

872 

1123 

I4i4|i747 

1  .00 

2 

1 1 

22 

62 

I  26 

218 

343 

589 

917 

1176 

1495  1838 

I  •  50 

3 

13 

28 

75 

153 

267 

419 

722 

1 1  23 

1450 

1824  2256 

2.00 

4 

15 

31 

88 

178 

309 

485 

832 

1297 

1676 

2iiO|2594 

3.00 

sH 

19 

39 

107 

216 

377 

593 

1020 

1589 

1957 

2592 

4.00 

7H 

22 

45 

123 

253 

437 

683 

1176 

5.00 

9i 

25 

50 

138 

280 

486 

765 

7 -50 

I4i 

30 

6i 

169 

344 

10.00 

iqH 

35 

71 

195 

The  table  is  based  on  Poncelet's  formula,  and  refers  to  drain  - 
age  of  ground  water  only.  If  surface  water  is  also  to  be  removed, 
as  in  the  case  of  ponds  without  other  outlets,  the  tiles  will  drain 
safely  only  one-half  to  one-third  the  number  of  acres  given  in 
the  table.  When  a  part  of  the  land  in  the  watershed  is  rolling, 
not  requiring  tiling,  count  only  one-third  of  such  rolling  land 
in  addition  to  all  of  the  low,  flat  land,  in  getting  the  size  of  tiles 
to  remove  ground  water  only. 

If  it  is  not  practicable  to  use  such  a  large  tile  as  is  required  to 
carry  a  large  amount  of  surface  drainage,  a  broad  shallow  depres- 
sion, cultivated  or  kept  in  grass,  may  be  maintained  alongside 
of  the  drain  to  carry  the  surface  overflow  from  heavy  rains.  A 
12-inch  tile  may  thus  often  be  used  in  place  of  the  expensive 
15-inch  or  18-inch  tile. 


366 


AGRICULTURE. 


NUMBER   OF   ACRES   DRAINED   BY   OPEN   DITCHES. 

Depth  of  Water,  3  feet.  Depth  of  Ditch,  at  least  4  feet. 


Grades. 

Average  Width  of  Water,  Feet. 

Per 

cent. 

Feet 

per 

Mile. 

4 

6 

8 

10 

15 

20 

30 

50 

1 .0 

2 . 1 

725 
1000 

970 
1360 

1570 
2250 

2240 

5300 

7470 

18400 

0.04 

400 

690 

4700 

26100 

0.06 

3-2 

4.2 

492 
572 

850 
980 

1260 
1460 

1690 
1950 

2770 

5770 
6670 

18400 
2T400 

31900 

0..08 

4820 

37400 

0. 10 

5-3 

7.8 
10.6 

636 

791 
905 

IIOO 

1330 
1560 

1630 

2010 
2310 

2180 

2670 
"4720' 

5360 

6600 
7870 

7440 

23700 

30200 
35000 

41400 

0.15 
0.  20 

19000 
21800 

52100 
6030  0 

0.25 

13-2 

1020 

1740 

2660 

5300 

17500 

24600 

39000 

67700 

0.30 

15-8 
21  .  I 

1 100 
1300 

1970 
2290 

2900 

5850 
6740 

19400 
22200 

26800 
30800 

42700 
49400 

74000 

0.40 

5050 

85700 

0.  50 

26 .  4 

1475 

2559 

5620 

7500 

24800 

34800 

55300 

95200 

0.60 

31  -7 

1600 

2790 

6230 

16500 

27200 

37600 

60400 

0.70 

37.0 
42.2 

1720 
1850 

3010 

6650 
7170 

17800 
19T00 

29400 

41200 

0.80 

4850 

0.90 

47-5 

1955 

5140 

7550 

20100 

1 .00 

52.8 

2050 

5400 

7980 

Depth  of  Water,  s  feet. 


Depth  of  Ditch,  at  least  6^  feet. 


Grades. 

Average  Width  of  Water,  Feet. 

Per 

cent. 

Feet 
per 
Mile. 

6 

8 

10 

IS 

20 

30 

50 

0.02 

1 .0 

2 . 1 

3-2 
4-2 

5.3 

7.8 

10.  6 

13-2 

15.8 
21 .  I 

26.4 

31.7 
37.0 
42.2 
47-5 

980 
1390 
1710 
1980 

2220 
2720 

1470 
2090 
2560 
2980 

1900 
2800 

5000 
7200 

7150 

23800 

33500 

40800 
48800 

54500 

66700 
77000 
86000 
94000 

43800 

0.04 

20400 

24700 
30000 

33400 

40500 
47000 
53000 
57000 
67000 

62500 

0.06 
0.08 

5100 
6100 
7600 

17600 
20400 
23400 

28700 

33000 

37500 
40700 
47000 

75500 
88000 

0. 10 

5010 

6300 
7300 

98000 

0.15 

17100 

19500 

21900 
23900 
27700 

31000 
33900 

120000 

0.  20 

4820 

5370 
5900 
6830 

7600 

139000 

0.25 
0.30 
0.40 

0.  50 

16300 
17900 
20600 

23000 

25200 
27300 

155000 
170000 

0.60 
0.70 
0.80 
0.  90 

16700 
18100 
19000 
20500 

AGRICULTURAL   EifGIN"EERIKG. 


167 


NU3IBER   OF   ACRES   DRAINED   BY   OPEX   DITCHES- 

(Continued). 


Depth  of  Water,  7  feet. 


Depth  of  Ditch,  at  least  9  feet. 


Grade. 

Average  Width  of  Water, 

Feet. 

Per 

cent. 

Feet 

per 

Mile. 

8 

10 

15 

20 

30 

50 

0 .02 

I  .0 
2. 1 

3-2 

4.2 
5-3 

7.8 
10 . 6 
13-  2 
15.8 
21  .  I 

26.  4 

2300 

4700 
6740 

16600 

23400 

29600 
34200 
38400 

47200 
54200 
60500 
66200 

28000 
35400 

43400 
50000 
56000 

68500 
78700 
88000 
96500 

48000 

58000 

72000 
83000 
92600 

1 12000 
130000 
146000 

88500 

0.04 

4850 

5920 
6940 

7720 

106000 

0.06 
0.08 
0. 10 

17000 
19100 
21800 

27000 
31300 
34800 
38200 
44100 

129000 
150000 
167000 

0. 15 
0.  20 
0.25 
0.30 
0 .40 

0.  50 

19400 
22400 
25000 
27400 
31700 

35400 

202000 
235000 

Depth  of  Water,  9  feet. 


Depth  of  Ditch,  at  least  ii^  feet. 


Grade. 

Average  Width  of  Water,  Feet. 

Per 

Feet 

cent. 

per 
Mile. 

10 

IS 

20 

30 

SO 

0.02 

1 .0 

6550 

27800 

40800 

69500 

127000 

0.04 

2. 1 

18500 

34400 

50000 

83500 

157000 

0 .06 

3-2 

22600 

41 600 

61000 

103000 

193000 

0.08 

4.2 

26300 

48300 

71000 

120000 

221000 

0. 10 

5-3 

30400 

54000 

79100 

132000 

244000 

0.15 

7.8 

37300 

66100 

96200 

162000 

298000 

0.20 

10.6 

42900 

76200 

104000 

0.  25 

13.2 

48000 

85300 

125000 

0.30 

15.8 

52500 

93200 

0,40 

21  .  I 

60800 

The  above  tables  are  calculated  by  Kutter's  formula,  using 
a  "coefficient  of  roughness"  equal  to  0.03,  as  recommended  for 
channels  in  moderately  good  condition,  having  stones  and  weeds 
occasionally.  For  ditches  in  first-class  condition,  the  number 
of  acres  may  be  increased  about  25  per  cent.     The  tables  have 


168  AGRICULTURE. 

been  calculated  for  ditches  having  sides  with  slopes  of  one  foot 
horizontal  to  one  foot  vertical,  but  are  approximately  correct 
for  other  slopes. 

The  capacity  of  the  ditches  has  been  made  as  follows,  the 
ditches  to  run  not  more  than  8-10  full  for  the  capacities  men- 
tioned : 

Above  the  upper  heavy  line,  f  in.  depth  of  water  per  24  hours. 

Between  the  heavv  lines,  h  in.  depth  of  water  per  24  hours. 

Below  the  lower  heavy  line,  \  in.  depth  of  water  per  24  hours. 

Local  conditions  may  vary  the  size  needed,  and  it  is  necessary 
to  consult  a  drainage  engineer  in  each  case. 

ADVICE     TO     LAND     OWNERS     ABOI  T     TO     CONSTRUCT 
DRAINS.     (AsHB..\uGH.) 

1.  Employ  a  reliable  drainage  engineer  to  make  surveys,  and 
plan  your  system  of  drainage.  Otherwise  you  are  very  liable 
to  throw  away  part  of  your  money. 

2.  Require  from  your  drainage  engineer  a  complete  map  or 
plat  of  your  drains,  showing  the  e.xact  location,  sizes,  grades,  and 
depths.  Remember  that  your  drains  will  be  out  of  reach  (except 
at  much  cost  and  trouble)  after  they  are  covered. 

3.  Make  your  drains  of  ample  size.  Drains  which  are  too 
small  fail  when  you  need  them  most,  in  wet  seasons. 

4.  Put  your  tile  down  to  a  good  depth.  Other  ise  they  will 
not  draw  well  to  any  considerable  distance.  Make  them  four 
feet  deep  in  the  lowest  ground  if  possible.  The  extra  cost  of 
good  depth  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  total  cost. 

5.  Have  your  drainage  engineer  inspect  the  work  during 
construction  and  test  the  grades  of  the  dr  ins  and  see  that  the 
work  is  well  done.  Many  tile  become  choked  with  mud  because 
not  laid  true. 

6.  Be  sure  to  protect  the  outlet.  Build  a  bulkhead  wall  of 
brick  or  stone  to  hold  the  end.  Also  use  a  piece  of  iron  pipe  at 
the  end,  if  tile  is  not  too  large,  or  for  large  drains  use  a  few  feet 
of  sewer -pipe  cemented. 

7.  If  you  are  obliged  to  construct  an  open  ditch,  make  it 
at  least  five  to  seven  feet  deep,  if  possible,  to  give  good  outlets 
tor  tile,  and  to  avoid  choking  up. 


AGRICULTURAL   ENGINEERING. 


169 


8.  The  bottoms  of  open  ditches  should  be  at  least  three  feet 
wide,  and  the  sides  should  be  given  slopes  of  at  least  one  foot 
horizontal  to  one  vertical  to  avoid  choking.  Dirt  should  not 
be  piled  near  the  edges  of  the  bank. 

POINTS  TO  NOTE  IN  PLANNING  A  DItA.INAGE  STSTE3I. 

1.  Character  of  the  land,  as  swampy,  low,  sloping,  drv,  etc. 
also  retentive  or  open,  depth  of  surface  soil,  condition  of  sub- 
soil, etc. 

2.  Acreage  of  various  kinds  just  described,  their  location 
relative  to  drains,  etc. 

3.  The  outlet,  its  character,  capacity,  depth,  protection  re- 
quired for  tile,  etc. 

4.  Fall  or  grade  for  mains,  submains,  and  laterals,  with  depth 
of  cutting  required. 

5.  Various  expedients,  such  as  the  use  of  cut-offs  across  necks 
of  land,  to  save  distance  and  gain  fall. 

6.  Your  drainage  engineer  should  be  competent  to  handle 
these  problems. 


SIZES    OB'   DRAIN-PIPE    REQUIRED    FOR   CTILVERTS   IN 
PROPORTION   TO   CAPACITY  AND   FALL.     (Eldridge.) 


Fall  in  loo  Feet. 

3  Inches. 

6  Inches. 

9  Inches. 

Gallons  per  Minute. 

6  incbes 
8   " 

129 

183 

224 

265 

375 

460 

9 

355 

S03 

617 

10   ' 

463 

655 

803 

I  2 

730 

1033 

1273 

15   " 

1282 

1818 

2224 

18    * 

2022 

2860 

3508 

24 

4152 

S871 

7202 

170 


AGRICULTUKE. 


AREAS  FR03I  WHICH  14  INCH  OF  WATER  WIEE  BE 
REMOVED  IN  24  HOURS  BY  Ol  TEET  TILE  DRAINS  OF 
DIFFERENT  DIAMETERS  AND  LENGTHS  WITH  DIF- 
FERENT  GRADES.      (Elliott.) 


Diam- 
eter of 
Tile  in 
Inches. 


5 
6 

7 

8 

9 

lo 

I  2 

14 
i6 
i8 

20 


Grade  per  loo  ft.  in  Decimals  of  a  Foot  (with  Approx.  Equiv. 
in  Inches). 


o.os 
(1  in.). 

o.o8 
.(i  in.). 

O.IO 

(lAin.). 

O.I  2 

(li  in.). 

G.l6 

(2  in.). 

Length  of  Drain  in  Feet. 

lOOO       2000 

I  GOO 

2000 

lOOO 

2000 

I  GOO 

2GGO 

I  GOO 

2GOO 

Acres  of  Land  Drained. 

17-7 

14.  G 

19.1 

IS. 7 

19.8 

28.0 

22.  2 

29.9 

24.8 

31-2 

41 .1 

32.7 

44.  I 

36.4 

45-9 

57-3 

45-6 

61  . 4 

50.7 

64.0 

76.5 

61  .  2 

82.2 

68.  I 

85.6 

99-5 

79-5 

106.  7 

88.5 

III .  2 

156.  I 

124.9 

167.7 

139-3 

174.8 

228.7 

183.7 

245-3 

204.3 

256.  I 

317.8 

255.9 

341  -4 

284.6 

355-4 

424.9 

342.5 

456.4 

381.3 

475-7 

551.6 

444.9 

591.5 

495-8 

616.4 

16. 
26. 
38. 

53- 
72. 
94- 

147. 

217  . 

.502 . 

405. 

526, 


2G.  6 

32.5 

47-7 
66.5 

89.  I 
oiii5.6 
9  181. 7 

4  265.8 

5  369.5 
5,494-4 
7,640.4 


17.6 

22.  I 

27.8 

34.8 

40.8 

5I-I 

57.0 

71.2 

76.3 

95-3 

99.2 

123.9 

156.2 

194.6 

229.7 

284.9 

319.7 

396.3 

428.1 

529.1 

556.6 

686.3 

19.4 
30.5 

44.8 
62.6 
83.8 

108.9 
171 .6 
251.7 
350.4 
470.1 
610.5 


Diam- 
eter of 
Tile  in 
Inches. 


5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

10 
12 

14 
16 
18 

20 


Grade  per  100  ft.  in  Decimals  of  a  Fo  )t  (with  Approx.  Equiv. 
in  Inches). 


G.20 
(2I  in.). 

0.25 
(3  in.). 

G.3G             1             0.40 

(3|in.).     j     (4lin.). 

0.50 

(6  in.). 

Length  of  Drain  in  Feet. 

1000 

2000 

1000 

2000 

1000       2GOO 

IGGO 

2GOO 

IGOO 

2000 

Acres  of  Land  Drained. 

23. 

37. 

54. 

75. 

lOI  , 

131  • 
206, 
302. 
420. 
562. 
729. 


20.9 

25-1 

22.  7 

26.7 

24.5 

29-5 

27-5 

32. G 

33.0 

39-6 

35-9 

42  .0 

38.6 

46.4 

43-5 

50.5 

48.5 

58.0 

52.8 

61.6 

56.7 

68.2 

63.8 

74.0 

67.7 

8G.9 

73.6 

85.8 

79.0 

95.0 

89.1 

103.3 

90.7 

108.4 

98.6 

114-9 

106.0 

127  .0 

119. 4 

138. I 

117.9 

140 . 6 

128. I 

149-3 

137.6 

165.2 

155-3 

179-  2 

185.6 

221  . 1 

201  .8 

234-5 

216.9 

259-2 

244.  I 

281.8 

272.2 

323.5 

296.  I 

343.5 

318. 1 

379-7 

358.2 

412. g 

379. 1 

449-9 

41  2.  2 

477-4 

442.9 

527-8 

498.4 

573-7 

508.1 

601  .8 

552.5 

638.1 

593.7 

705.2 

668 .  0 

767.4 

660.3 

780.0 

718.2 

826.9 

771. 1 

914-7 

8O7  .8 

994-5 

30.3 

47-8 

70.  I 

98.0 

131  -3 

'70.5 

208.6 

393-9 

548.8 
735.  I 
s;54.6 


Three  feet  of  soil  above  the  top  of  the  drain  has  been  assumed. 
The  grade,  length  of  drain,  and  openness  of  soil  are  important  factors 
in  the  capacity  of  a  tile  drain  for  discharging  soil-water. 


AGRICULTURAL   ENGINEERING. 


171 


RISE   OF  THE   SLOPE   FOR    100   FEET.    (Waring.) 

Table   I.   gives  the    rise  of  the  slope   for   loo  feet  of  the  horizontal 
measurement. 
Table  II.,  the  rise  of  the  slope  for  loo  feet  of  its  own  length. 


Deg. 


15 
20 

25 
30 

35 

40 

45 


Table  No.  I. 


Feet. 

Deg. 

8.749 

:  50 

17-633 

!  55 

20.795 

60 

36.397 

65 

46  631 

;   70 

57-735 

75 

70.021 

80 

83.910 

85 

100 

Feet. 


119-175 
142.815 
173.205 
214.451 
274.748 

373-205 

567. 128 

1143.010 


Deg. 


15 
20 

25 
30 
35 
40 

45 


Table  No.  II. 


Feet. 

8.716 

17-365 

25.882 

34.202 

42.262 

50 

57  358 

64.279 

70  711 


Deg. 

50 

Feet. 

76 . 604 

55 

81.915 

60 

86.602 

65 

90.631 

70 

93.969 

75 

96-593 

80 

98.481 

85 

99.619 

Example. — If  the  horizontal  measurement  is  100  feet,  and  the  slope  is  at 
an  angle  of  10°,  the  rise  will  be  17.633  feet. 
If  the  sloping  line  (at  an  angle  of  15°)  is  100  feet,  it  rises  25.882  feet. 


QU.VNTITY    OF   EARTH    REMOVED    PER  ROD    OF 
DRAINS    OF  VARIOUS  DI3IENSIONS.     (Scott.) 


Q- 


2^ 

4 
5 


In. 
7 


Mean  Width  of  Drains. 


In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

Cubic  Yards. 


8q 

1.02 

I. 14 

1.27 

1.40 

1-53 

1.65 

1.78 

1. 91 

2.04 

2. 16 

07 

1.22 

1-37 

1-53 

1.68 

I  83 

1.98 

2.14 

2.^9 

2.24 

2.60 

25 

r.42 

1.60 

1.78 

1.96 

2.14 

2.32 

2.49 

2.67 

2.8s 

3-03 

42 

X.63 

1.83 

2.04 

2.24 

2.44 

2.65 

2.85 

3-05 

3.26 

3-46 

78 

2.03 

2.29 

2.54 

2.80 

3-05 

3-31 

3.56 

3.82 

4.07 

4-33 

In. 

18 


2.29 

2  75 
3.21 
3.66 
4.58 


*'  If  a  4-ft.  drain  be  cut  14  in.  wide  at  top  and  4  in.  at  bot- 
tom, the  mean  width  will  be  g  in.,  and  the  quantity  of  earth 
excavated   in  cutting  each  rod  will   be    1.83  cubic  3'ards  ;  if 


172 


AGRICULTURE, 


the  same  drain  be  cut  i8  ir'.  at  too  and  8  in.  at  bottom,  to*" 
mean  width  will  be  13  in.,  ana  2.65  cubic  yards  of  eartb 
will  have  to  be  removed  in  cutting  each  rod  :  so  that  if  lue 
digging  of  the  drain  costs  6  cents  per  cubic  yard  of  earth 
moved  the  narrow  drain  will  cost  11  cents  per  rod,  and  the 
other  nearly  16  cents  per  rod,  showing  the  cost  to  be  one 
half  larger,  quite  unnecessarily. 

*'  The  same  table  will  be  found  useful  in  helping  to  fix  the 
relative  prices  of  deep  and  shallow  drains  ;  but  it  must  be 
recollected  that  the  deeper  drains  will  be  increased  in  cost 
not  only  by  reason  of  the  greater  quantity  of  earth  which 
has  to  be  moved,  but  also  because  of  the  increased  labor  of 
lifting  the  earth  to  the  surface  from  a  greater  depth." 


LI3I1T   OF   SIZE   OF   TILE   TO   GRADE   AND   LENGTH. 


Size  of 

Minimum 

Limit  of 

Size  of 

Minimum 

Limit  of 

Tile  in 

Grade  per 

Length  in 

Tile  in 

Grade  per 

Length  in 

Inches. 

100  Feet. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

100  Feet. 

Feet. 

3 

.09 

800 

8 

•  05 

3000 

4 

.05 

1600 

9 

.05 

3500 

5 

•  05 

2000 

10 

•  04 

4000 

6 

•  OS 

2500 

1 1 

.04 

4500 

7 

•  OS 

2800 

12 

.04 

5300 

RAINFALL.     (McConnell.) 


Inches 

Cubic 

Imperial 

Tons 

1 
Inches 

Cubic 

Imperial 

Tons 

of 

Feet 

Gallons 

per 

of 

Feet 

Gallons 

per 

Depth. 

per 

per 

Acre. 

Depth. 

per 

per 

Acre. 

Acre. 

Acre. 

Acre. 

Acre. 

I 

3.630 

22,635 

lOI  .  I 

7 

25,410 

158,444 

707.7 

2 

7,260 

45.270 

202.  2 

8 

29,040 

181.072 

808.8 

3 

10,890 

67,905 

303 -3 

9 

32,670 

203,714 

909.9 

4 

14,520 

90,539 

404.4 

10 

36,300 

226,349 

lOI I .0 

S 

18,150 

113,174 

505.5 

1 1 

39,930 

248,984 

1 1 1  2.  I 

6 

21,780 

135,809 

606.6 

12 

43,560 

271,619 

1213. 2 

AC4RTCULTURAL   ENGTNEEKTNG.  1<3 

TABLE   SHOWING  THE   FORCE  AND  VELOCITY 
OF    WIND.     (Waring.) 


Miles 
per  Hour. 

Feet 
per  Minute. 

Lbs.  Press- 
ure on 
I  sq.  ft. 

Description. 

I 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 
8 

lO 

15 

20 
25 

30 

35 
40 

45 
50 
60 

80 

100 

88 

176 

264 

352 

440 

523 

704 

880 

1320 

1760 

2200 

2640 

3080 

3520 

3960 

4400 

5280 

7040 

8800 

.005 

.020  f 

•045  i 

.080 

•125) 

.180  J- 

.320) 

.500  I 

1.125  f 

2.000  1 

3-125  ( 

4. 500  I 

6.125  s 

8.000  1 

10.125  r 
12.500 
18,000 
32.000 

50.000- 

Barely  observable. 

Just  perceptible. 

Light  breeze. 

Gentle,  pleasant  wind 

Brisk  blow. 
Very  brisk. 
High  wind. 

Very  high. 

Storm. 

Great  storm. 

Hurricane. 

Tornado,  uprooting  trees,  sweeping 

off  buildings,  etc. 

NUMBER  OF  SQUARE  FEET  AND  ACRES   THAT  A 

Fir.st-class   AViiiclinill   can    Irrigate    One   Inch  in  8 
Hours,  Raising  the  AVater  lO,  15  or  25  Feet. 

(A.  R.  Wolff.) 


10  Feet. 

15  Feet, 

25  Feet. 

Size  of  Windmill. 

Sq.  Ft. 

Acres 

Sq.  Ft. 

Acres 

Sq.  Ft. 

Acres 

8i  ft. 
10    " 
12    " 

diam.  of  wheel.. 

11.736.34 
37,161.74 
66,765.16 

I 

269 
853 
533 

7,824.74 
24.774-75 
44.509.85 

.180 

•569 
1 .022 

4.744-74 
14,767.83 

26.134.57 

.109 

-339 
.600 

14    " 
16    " 
18    '• 
20    " 

85,982.05 
120,106. 14 
192,446.10 
238.395.08 

I 
2 
4 
5 

974 
757 
418 

473 

57.321.11 

80,070.76 

123,164  53 

158,930-31 

1 .316 
1.838 
2.827 
3-649 

34,757-03 
49,742.00 

75.215-14 
9vi,2ii.5o 

.798 
1. 142 
1.727 
2.209 

^5 :; 

30 

410,0^8.09 
831,686.24 

9 
19 

4'3 

093 

273.35924 
561,197,56 

6.275 
12.883 

163.533  37 
331.752.96 

3-75 
7.616 

174 


AORICULTURE. 


0 

H 


0 

H 

0 

» 

I 


o 


Averajfc 

Number  of 

Hours  per  Day 

Durinjj  which 

this  Result 

will  be 
Obtained. 

OOOOOOOOOOOC  0000 

Equivalent 
Actual  Use- 
ful Horse- 
power 
Developed. 

^NMOOM^'OO'* 
0    -    M    C4    1-VO    t^  f^ 

c 
cd 
o 

V 

a 
a 

i 

u 

ao 
•o  c 
J!  .2 

'n  c3 
Oi  > 

"o 

(A 

c 
O 

8 

00    1/1  M  OO    >- 

O-  t^  •1  ro  •<»■ 
.  0   c    o>  t^ 

o 

0    t^  «-    tr,  •*  O 

•     ■  00  o  t^oo  00  •«^ 

vo  00  t^  ■«r  c    cr> 

m  t^  O-  t^  o<  t^ 

"i 

•  o  •-  »o  0  ►■  00  iri 

.    iri  lA  ■.«■  IT)  0)    ^  W 
t^OO    N    M    ■*   N    t^ 

.    -I  M   1-  vo   ■*  ■-   O 
M    M    ^    N    ro  Tt 

•n 

•  00   M   t  N    ro  0   •* 
■    ro  in  0    •»«•  ■-    O    O 

•  IT)  Ov  f^  lo  irioo  vo 

•  vo   t^  lO  O  «   O   '-' 

M    .-    «    ro  •♦  «>• 

o 

lO 

vc    en  0)    O-<-i..0    -^ 
i-t  vo    i/"'VO    ii~ivO    invO 
0    "^.  OS  lO^O    •-    t>.  C> 

M  Ov  f~  N   '-'   N    rovo 
f-    N    f<^  u-)\0    0 

N  O'  -  o  0  fj  0  M 

vo    t^  -^  r'^,  C  00    u-iOO 
.^    ^    0(-ivovo    Oro 

Revolu- 
tions 
of 
Wheel. 

louio  too  mo  lO 
r^vO  O   m  lo  ■>»•■*  ro 

OOmO'OO'nO 
t~-\o  m  lo  ■♦  ■♦  f^  CO 

Velocity 
of 

Wind 

in 

Miles 

per 

hour. 

»OvOvovOvO'OVOvO 

0 

I) 

^-  "  *  -  -  -  ' 

00  0  M  •»l-vo  00   0  »*» 
tH  M  t-i  M  M  n  M 

-=5>>>g| 

AGRICULTURA L    K N  G I N  E  i: RI X  G. 


175 


3} 

M 

Q 

M 


0 
0 

;?: 
o 

0 
0 

a 
a 


o 


Expense 

per 
Horse- 
power, in 
cents 
per 
hour. 

0  CO  o>oo  o>'^  m  w 

0) 

a 
o 

> 

V 

Q 

V 

»i 

=    4J 

u  Ck. 

H 

o 
v 

c 
<u 

a 

X 

"5 
0 

P    0    P)    1^  t'1  "^'O  NO 
HI   M   M   fi  ■♦ 

qqoooq«« 

For 

Attend- 
ance. 

^0vov0^0^0^0*0^ 

qoooqqoq 

For  Repairs 
and  Depre- 
ciation (5^  of 
first  cost 

per 
annum). 

M    H    H    M 

For  Interest  on 
First  Cost  (first 
cost  including 
cost  of  wind- 
mill, pump,  and 
tower)  at  5^  per 
annum. 

M  M  M  et 

Average 

Number  of 

Hours 

per 

Day 

During 

which  this 

Quantity 

will  be 

Raised. 

00000000000000*0 

Equiva- 
lent 
Actual'Use- 
lul 
Horse- 
power 
Developed. 

■•^f»M00>-MO\■<»■ 
0    HI    M    Ci    •*vO    t^  CO 

M 

Gallons 

of' 

Water 

Raised 

25  Feet  per 

Hour. 

0    "VOOOVO   HI    r^ro 

t>.  10  ro  0   r^O   0  ■^ 

•^  1  1  '^'*.  °°,  '^  '^ 

w  n'  cT  en  in  ti  cf 

M 

Designation 

of 

Mill. 

13 

1 
00  0  c«  -^o  00  0  m 

F.    M    n    M    HI    C4    C« 

'--S^>>^g 

176 


AGRICULTURE. 


N03IIXALI  HORSE-POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  THE 
DISCHARGE  OF  GIVEN  QUANTITIES  OF  WATER 
WITH  LIFTS  OF   lO  AND  20  FEET.     (Scott.) 


Diameter  of  Pipe, 
Inches. 

Gallons 

Nominal  H.P. 

Nominal  H.P. 

Discharg^ed  per 

required  for  a 

required  for  a 

Minute. 

10-foot  Lift. 

20-foot  Lift. 

3 

lOO 

I 

3 

4 

200 

^^ 

3 

5 

350 

2 

4 

6 

500 

2^ 

5 

I 

759 

3 

6 

1000 

4 

8 

lO 

1500 

6 

10 

S3 

2300 

8 

14 

14 

2800 

10 

16 

>5 

3300 

12 

20 

i8 

6000 

20 

3S 

IRRIGATION.     (Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


A  7i'afer  right  is  the  right  or  privilege  of  using  water  for 
irrigating  purposes,  either  in  a  definite  quantity  or  upon  a 
prescribed  area  of  land,  such  right  or  privilege  being  cus- 
tomarily acquired  either  by  priority  of  use  or  by  purchase. 
In  many  parts  of  the  arid  region  a  water  right  is  an  exceed- 
ingly valuable  property.  The  average  value  of  the  water 
rights  of  the  entire  arid  region,  as  determined  by  the  cen- 
sus of  1890,  was  $26  per  acre,  and  there  are  fruit-growing 
districts  in  California  where  water  rights  have  been  sold  at 
as  high  as  $1500  per  miner's  inch,  or  from  $100  to 
$500  per  acre,  according  ta  the  amount  used  on  any  given 
area  of  land. 

The  duty  of  water  is  the  extent  of  the  service  it  will  per- 
form  when  used  for  irrigating  purposes,  that  is,  the  num- 
ber of  acres  a  given  quantity  of  water  will  adequately  irri- 
gate under  ordinary  circumstances.  This  is  usually  from 
100  to  200  acres  for  each  second-foot.  Where  water  is 
abundant  the  duty  has  been  known  to  be  as  low  as  50 
acres,  and  where  very  scarce  as  high  as  500  acres,  to  the 
second-foot. 


AGRICULTURAL   ENGI:N^EERING.  177 

A  miner's  inch  is  theoretically  such  a  quantity  of  water  as 
will  flow  through  an  aperture  i  inch  square  in  a  board  2 
inches  thick  under  a  head  of  water  of  6  inches  in  one  sec- 
ond of  time,  and  it  is  equal  to  0.194  gallon,  or  0.C259337 
cubic  foot,  per  second,  or  to  11.64  gal.,  or  i.556o24cubic  ft., 
per  minute.  The  amount  of  water  flowing  through  a  given 
aperture  in  a  given  time  varies,  however,  with  the  head  ot 
water  over  the  opening,  and  also  with  the  form  of  the 
opening.  In  Colorado  the  miner's  inch  legalized  by  statute 
equals  11. 7  gal.  per  min.  The  California  miner's  inch,  how- 
ever, equals  only  9  gal.  per  min.,  100  Colorado  inches  being, 
accordingly,  equal  to  130  California  inches.  One  hundred 
Colorado  inches  will  cover  an  acre  to  a  depth  of  5.2  ft.  in 
24  hours  ;  100  California  inches  will  cover  the  same  area 
only  to  a  depth  of  4  ft.  in  the  same  time.  Fifty  California 
inches  are,  therefore,  approximately  equal  to  i  second- 
foot,  and  50  Colorado  inches  equal  to  about  three  tenths 
more. 

An  acre-'foot  of  water  is  the  amount  required  to  cover  an 
acre  of  ground  to  a  depth  of  i  foot.  This  is  43,560  cubic 
feet,  or  325,851.45  gal.  Its  weight  is  1213  tons  2113  pounds, 
at  2240  pounds  to  the  ton. 

The  amount  of  water  required  to  cover  an  acre  of  ground 
to  a  depth  of  i  inch  is  3630  cubic  feet,  or  27,154.29  gal.  Its 
weight  is  loi  tons  362!  pounds,  at  2240  pounds  to  the 
ton. 

A  second-foot  is  the  most  satisfactory  because  the  most 
definite  unit  of  measurement  for  flowing  water.  It  is  used 
by  the  U.  S.  Government  in  the  gauging  of  rivers  and 
streams,  and  is  rapidly  superseding  the  miner's  inch  in  the 
measurement  of  water  for  irrigation.  It  is  the  quantity  rep- 
resented by  a  stream  i  foot  wide  and  i  foot  deep  flowing 
at  the  average  rate  of  i  foot  per  second.  In  other  words, 
it  is  I  cub.  ft.  per  second,  60  cub.  ft.  per  min.,  3600  cub. 
ft.  per  hour,  etc.  A  stream  flowing  continuously  at  the 
average  rate  of  i  second-foot  would  carry  in  one  day  of  24 
hours  86,400  cub.  ft.,  or  646,316.9  gal.,  sufficient  to  cover 
i||y  acres  to  a  depth  of  i  ft.  Flowing  continuously  for  one 
year  of  365  days,  such  a  stream  would  carry  31,536,000  cub. 


178  AGRICULTURE. 

ft.,  or  235,905,678.7  gal.,  sufficient  to  cover  723^^1  acres  to  a 
depth  of  I  ft. 

The  sub-humid  region  is  the  strip  of  country  running 
north  and  south  between  the  arid  region,  where  irrigation 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  successful  prosecution  of 
agriculture,  and  those  portions  of  the  United  States  in 
which  the  rainfall  is  usually  sufficient  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses. It  includes  portions  of  North  Dakota,  South  Da- 
kota, Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  Texas,  and  may  be  described 
as  a  region  where  irrigation  is  not  always  necessary,  but 
where  agricultural  operations  cannot,  with  any  assurance 
of  success,  be  undertaken  without  it. 

The  average  value  of  the  irrigated  land  in  farms  in  the 
United  States  was  ascertained  by  the  census  of  i8go  to  be 
$83.28  per  acre,  and  that  of  the  non-irrigated  land  in  farms 
$20.95  per  acre. 

The  average  annual  value  of  the  agricultural  products  of 
the  irrigated  land  was  ascertained  to  be  $14.89  per  acre  irri- 
gated, and  that  of  those  of  the  non-irrigated  land  $6.80  for 
each  acre  improved. 

The  average  first  cost  of  the  irrigated  land,  including 
purchase  money,  water  rights,  etc.,  was  ascertained  to 
have  been  $8.15  per  acre,  and  the  average  annual  cost  of 
the  water  supply  $1.07  per  acre. 

The  total  value  of  the  irrigated  farms  of  the  United 
States,  as  reported  by  the  farmers  themselves,  was,  in  round 
figures,  $296,850,000,  an  increase  of  $219,360,000,  or  283  per 
cent,  upon  their  cost,  including  land,  water  right,  fences, 
and  preparation  for  cultivation. 

The  total  value  of  the  productive  irrigating  systems  was 
found  to  be  $94,412,000,  an  increase  of  $64,801,000,  c^  2ig 
per  cent,  upon  their  cost. 


AGRICULTURAL   ENGINEERING. 


179 


CARflYING  CAPACITY    OF    PIPES,  GALLONS   PER 
3I1\UTE.      (Wilcox.) 


ol  « 

"S"^ 

a '-" 

rt  i! 

^■^ 

rt '*^ 

^■^ 

Size  of 
Pipe. 

SI 

7  a 

HI 

13 

^8 

7  a. 

ti.  0 
„  0 

"o  ^ 

-  u 
T  a 

t,  0 

-  2 

S  i! 

ON  "^ 

T  a 

^8 

V  a 

b;8 

0  V 

T,  inch. 

I? 

23 

32 

40 

46 

64 

79 

4  " 

27 

33 

47 

66 

81 

93 

131 

163 

6  " 

75 

105 

129 

183 

224 

258 

364 

450 

8  '• 

153 

21-5 

265 

375 

460 

527 

750 

923 

9  " 

205 

2QO 

355 

503 

617 

712 

1,006 

1.240 

lO   ' 

2(^7 

378 

463 

6:^3 

80-, 

926 

1,310 

1,613 

12   " 

422 

596 

7,so 

••'^33 

I. -273 

1.468 

2.076 

2.554 

15  " 

740 

1,021 

1.282 

i,8t8 

2,224 

2,464 

3,017 

4,467 

i8  " 

1. 168 

1,65  t 

2.022 

2.860 

3,508 

4.045 

5-704 

7,047 

24    " 

2.:iq6 

3-387 

4-«5S 

5.874 

7,202 

8,303 

11,744 

14,466 

30  " 

4.187 

5-920 

7,252 

'0.557 

12,580 

14,504 

20,516 

25,277 

FLOW  OF    WATER  THROUGH   STRAIGHT  PIPES 

Flowing  Full,  ia  Gallons  x^f"  Minute, 

(Collet.) 


•-i 

Head  of  Water  Divided  by  Length  of  Pipe. 

E  :^ 

ei^ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

5 

8 

1 

a 

TlTfT 

STJ 

?o 

IT) 

10 

TTT 

TTt 

TTT 

T 

tV, 

• 

.024 

.036 

.046 

.06 

.077 

.086 

* 

.  056 

.075 

.080 

.124 

.158 

.t8 

Vfl 

.14 

.21 

.26 

•34 

•44 

•50 

1 

4 

•31 

-44 

•52 

72 

■92 

I  04 

f 

•  22 

•3^ 

•5 

.83 

1.2 

'•5 

2.0 

2.6 

2.9 

i 

.46 

.70 

1 .0 

1.8 

•  2.5 

31 

4.1 

5-3 

6  0 

i 

1-33 

1.98 

2  0 

4  9 

7-' 

8.9 

11.7 

15 

16.9 

I 

2.79 

4.15 

6.1 

10 

14.8 

18  4 

24 

3' 

35 

li 

4.96 

7-3'> 

10.8 

18 

26 

32 

4-; 

54 

61   . 

ik 

7-93 

11.75 

17.2 

28 

41 

51 

67 

86 

97 

1} 

II. 7 

17.4 

255 

42 

61 

76 

1 00 

128 

144 

2 

16.6 

24 

16 

59 

86 

106 

140 

179 

202 

2} 

29 

4^ 

63 

104 

151 

188 

246 

315 

354 

3 

46 

69 

101 

166 

240 

•J98 

390 

500 

562 

4 

q8 

144 

210 

3-)4 

408 

6.7 

808 

1033 

1 162 

5 

'73 

254 

370 

606 

876 

1085 

1419 

1815 

2040 

6 

227 

404 

589 

959 

'389 

1720 

2248 

2876 

3230 

If  the  diameter  be  doubled,  nearly  5.8  limes  the  quantity  can  be  pas.sed 


180 


AGRICULTURE. 


POWER    REQUIRED    TO    RAISE     WATER     FROM 
DEEP  WELLS  BY  PUMPING.      (Apileby.) 


Gallons  of  water  raised  per  hour. 


Height  of  lift  for  one  man,  in  feet. . . 
"        "     '*     "      *'   donkey,  in  feet 
"         "     "      "       "    horse,         " 
"        "     "     "       "    H.P.    steam,  ( 
in  feet  f 


200 

350 

500 

650 

800 

qo 

51 

36 

28 

22 

180 

102 

72 

56 

45 

630 

357 

252 

196 

154 

990 

561 

396 

308 

242 

18 

36 

r26 


APPROXIMATE  COST    OF  DIFFERENT    KINDS   OF 
PIPP]   USED  FOR    IRRIGATION.      (Wilcox.) 


c 

It 

Q 

Sheet  Iron  or 

Steel  Pipe, 
No.  16  B.W.G. 

Sheet  Iron  or 

Steel  Pipe, 
No,  14  B  VV.G. 

Sheet  Iron  or 

Steel  Pipe. 
No.  12  B.W.G. 

Cast-iron  Pipe, 

Class  B,  or 

Medium. 

<u.9* 

> 

0. 

c 
<u 
•a 
0 
0 

a 
c 

S 

6 

8 
10 
12 

M 
16 
18 
20 

22 
24 

$0.32 
.42 
•53 
.63 
.69 
.82 
.91 
1 .00 
1.05 

§0.41 

•  51 

.60 

.68 

■75 

•93 

1. 00 

1.14 

1.30 

1.46 

$0.52 

.62 

.85 

.98 

1.17 

1-25 

1.43 

1.63 
1.85 
2.00 

$o.72j 
1.04J 
1.42 
1.84 
2.30 
2.83 
3-37 
3-97 
4.62 

5-33 

$o.i6i 
.22 

•33 
.4ii 

•55 
.68  J 

.?2i 

•96i 
1 .21 

I-37J 

$0.74 
•94 
1.08 
1.22 
1.32 
1.40 

$O.I2 
.20 
.26 
•32 

■38 

•45 

;ll 

.68 
.80 

AA^ERAGE    COST    PER    MILE    OF    CONSTRUCTING 
IRRIGATING  CANALS  AND  DITCHES. 

(Eleventh  U.  S.  Census.) 


States  and  Territories. 


General  average 

Arizona  

California 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Montana 

Nevada 

New  Mexico 

Oregon 

Utah 

Washington 

Wyoming^ 

Sub-humid  region... 


Under  5  Feet 
in  Width. 


380 
205 

325 
200 
3T0 
260 

493 
285 

303 


5  to  ID  Feet 
in  Width. 


$1,628 


$1,674 

5.957 

1,131 

810 

800 

1,150 

581 

1,060 

1,023 

1,2^6 

837 

447 


10  Feet  and 
Over  in 
Width. 


55-603 


it'5,274 

I5i5" 

5,258 

1,320 

2,300 

'  '6,666 
1,300 
3.072 

2.571 
3.884 
1,884 


AGRICULTURAL   E:N^GINEERIN'G. 


181 


CAPACITIES   OF   WIND^IILLS   AND   PU3IPS. 

(Irrigation  Age.) 

Sizes  of  Irrigation  3Iills  and  Pumps  best  Adapted  for 
each  other  to  AVork  Successfully  under  Ordinary 
Conditions. 


d. 

O 

V 
N 

e 

3 

o 

u 

O    Cl 

n  o 

11 

it 

o 
a 

mount 
Water 
Stroke 

mount 
Water 
Hour. 

mount 
Water 
Hours. 

mount 
Land  C 
ered.* 

ze  of 
Reserv 
Intr.  D 

C/} 

Q 

Q 

J 

<; 

< 

< 

< 

C/3 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft.  and 
under. 

In. 

Gals. 

Gals. 

Gals. 

Acres. 

Feet. 

jo-/oot  Mills. 


ID 

lO 


8 

30 

10 

il- 

3,660 

87,840 

6 

50 

10 

li 

2,580 

61,920 

4 

75 

10 

i 

1,320 

31,680 

12-foot  Mills. 


10 

30 

12 

4^ 

7,500 

180.000 

103 

8 

50 

12 

3^ 

6,300 

151,200 

86 

6 

75 

12 

1^ 

2,700 

64.800 

37 

4 

125 

12 

f 

1,320 

31,680 

18 

J 4 'foot  Mills. 


90X75 
90X60 
60X40 
50X30 


^4 

12 

30 

14 

6^ 

10,620 

254.880 

146 

125X80 

14 

10 

50 

14 

4^ 

7,260 

174,240 

100 

90X75 

M 

8 

75 

14 

2| 

4,620 

100,880 

63 

75X50 

14 

6 

J25 

14 

I| 

2,940 

7i)56o 

40 

65X40 

14 

4 

175 

14 

I 

1,680 

40,320 

23 

5oX3<- 

*  Amount  of  land  that  can  be  covered  i  ft.  deep  with  windmills  work- 
ing- at  the  rate  of  15  hours  per  day  for  300  days  in  the  year.  Acres  cov- 
ered I  ft.  deep. 

t  Capable  of  holding  water  for  24  hours"  continuous  pumping.  These 
sizes  should  have  4  ft.  depth  of  water,  height  of  bank  5  ft.,  width  of  base 
16  ft.,  2  ft.  of  water  below  discharge-pipe  not  included.  These  reservoirs 
to  connect  with  additional  reservoir  by  overflow-pipe  in  order  to  utilize 
full  capacity  of  mills  and  pumps.  Overflow-reservoir  should  be  of  i-  and  2- 
acre  capacity,  8  ft.  deep,  banks  9  ft.  high,  base  of  bank  45  ft.,  acre  size 
2og  ft.  on  each  side,  corners  rounded;  a-acre  size  2og  X  418  ft. 


182 


AGRICULTURE. 


THE    CALIFORNIA    WEIR    TABLE.     (Wilcox) 


Depth.       Mi 

^            Inc 

ler's 

hes. 

Depth. 

i 

( 
Miner's 
Inches. 

Depth. 

Miner's 
Inches. 

Depth. 

Miner's 
Inches. 

H 

01 

3% 

2.56 

7% 

7.04 

,2% 

15.27 

H 

04 

4,  ^ 

2 .69 

7=^ 

7 

22 

'3,, 

15-72 

% 

07 

M 

2.8r 

7% 

7 

40 

13^ 

16.18 

12 

4J4 

2-93 

8 

7 

58  ' 

t34 

16.64 

% 

17 

4% 

3-"7 

s% 

7 

76 : 

13M 

17.10 

H 

22 

4^ 

3.19     : 

8M 

7 

93  ! 

14 

»7-57 

27 

4% 

3-33 

m 

8 

12 

14H 

18.04 

I 

33 

4M 

3-47 

84 

8 

30 

144 

18.52 

i^ 

39 

3-6i     i 

8% 

8 

48 

^M 

IQ.OO 

^Va 

46 

5 

3-75 

m 

8 

67 

15 

19.48 

1% 

54 

5^ 

3  89     : 

m 

8 

86 

15H 

19.98 

iV^ 

62 

5!-4 

4-03 

9, 

9 

05 

154 

20  47 

^H 

69 

1       5% 

4.18      ' 

9H 

9 

23 

15M 

20.97 

1% 

77 

'       5V^ 

4-32 

9H 

9 

42 

16 

21.47 

1% 

86 

5% 

4   47 

9% 

9  62 

164 

22.47 

2 

95 

^^ 

4.62 

94 

9  81    1 

17 

23-50 

2j^ 

04 

-*  77     , 

9% 

10  00 

174 

^■4-54 

2^                        I 
2?8                          * 

'3 

6 

4.92 

9% 

10   19 

18 

25-58 

22 

1       6Hi 

5 -08     : 

10.39 

'84 

26.65 

2^                          T 

32 

6'4 

5-24     ' 

10 

10  59 

19 

27.74 

2%                        I 

42 

1       6% 

5-39 

104 

10  99   1 

194 

28.83 

2M                        I 
2?| 

52 

6^ 

5-54 

104 

II  ^0 

20 

29 -95 

63 

6>| 

5-7t 

loM 

11.80 

2o4 

3«-07 

3                     I 

74 

6-Vi 

5-87 

II 

12.22 

21 

32.21 

3,^ 

86 

1       6>^ 

6.04 

1.14 

"4 

12.65 

214 

33-36 

34 

97 

7 

6.20 

13  06 

22 

34  52 

3^^ 

08 

1        7^ 

6.37 

.--% 

13-50  I 

224 

35-70 

34                2 

19 

^^ 

■    6.53 

12 

'3-94   1 

23 

36  go 

39^                2 

31 

6.70 

1214 

14 -.38   1 

234 

38.10 

3M 

43 

1 

6.87 

124 

14.82 

24 

39-32 

CAPACITY  OF  CISTERNS   AND   TANKS, 
in   Gallons,  for  Each    Twelve  Inches  in  Depth. 

(A.  R.  WOLFK.) 


Diameter  in 
Feet. 

Gallons. 

Diameter  in 
Feet. 

Gallons. 

Diameter  in 
Feet, 

Gallons. 

I.O 

5-S7 

6.5 

248.23 

II. 0 

710.90 

2.0 

2-5 

3-0 

23-50 
36  72 
52.88 

70 

7-5 
8.0 

287.88 
330.48 
376.00 

II. 0 
12.0 
13.0 

777-05 
846.03 
992.91 

3-5 

71-97 

8.5 

424.48 

14.0 

"51-54 

4.0 
4-5 

5-0 
5-5 

94.00 

11S.87 
146.88 
177.72 

9.0 

9-5 
10. 0 
10.5 

475-89 
530-24 
5S7-52 
647.74 

15.0 
20.0 
25.0 
30.0 

1321.92 
2350.08 
3672.00 
5287.68 

6.0 

2x1,51 

AGHICULTURAL   EN-GINEERIN"G„ 


183 


Capacity  of  Cisterns  in  Barrels,  Per  Foot  in  Depth. 

(Hall.) 


Square  Cistern. 


Barrels. 

5  feet  by  5  feet  holds 3.52 

6  "    "    6    "       '♦     ... 
_    ((    <t    _    (t        t( 

7  7  ••.. 

8  •'     "    8     *•        "     .... 

9  "    "    o    "        "... 
'     "10    "        •*     ..'.. 


10 


8.54 
11.63 

19 -39 
23-74 


Circular  Cistern. 


Barrels. 

5  feet  in  diameter  holds 4.66 

6  "     "  "  " 
-    t(     i(          it            it 


9 
10 


n       tt 

ti     (t 


8.54 

11 .63 

15-19 
19-39 

23 -74 


ROAD-MAKING.     (Campbell) 

Drainage. — Perfect  drainage,  first  of  the  foundation  of 
the  roadbed,  secondly  of  the  road  surface,  are  the  points 
in  road-making  on  which  too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid. 

The  first  is  accomplished  by  underdrainage,  tile  drains 
being  laid  at  a  depth  of  three  or  more  feet  below  the  sur- 
face on  each  side  of  the  roadbed  at  the  foot  of  the  grade 
and  parallel  to  it.  Care  should  be  taken  to  fit  and  settle 
the  tile  in  the  trench  so  that,  when  refilling  with  earth, 
they  will  not  be  displaced.  As  a  rule  2I-  to  4-in.  tile  will 
be  sufficient.  The  joints  should  be  close,  and  the  grade 
a  true  line.  Loose  joints  and  an  uneven  grade  allow  silt  to 
pass  into  the  tile  and  remain  there,  destroying  the  drain. 

Surface  drainage  is  accomplished  by  open  drains  on  each 
side  of  the  grade,  having  sufficient  capacity  to  drain,  both 
the  roadbed  and  the  land  adjoining.  With  open  drains  and 
with  tile  drains  make  and  maintain  a  free  outlet  to  the 
nearest  watercourse.     A  drain  without  an  outlet  is  useless. 

Croivning  the  Road. — The  graded  portion  of  the  road 
should  be  wide  enough  to  accommodate  the  travel  upon  it, 
and  not  greater,  the  slope  being  uniform,  not  heaped  in 
the  centre.  The  crown  should  be  well  above  the  overflow 
of  storm  water,  and  should  have  a  grade  sufficient  to  shed 
water  readily  to  the  open  ditches  on  either  side.  Do  not 
round  it  up  so  as  to  make  the  grade  steep  and  dangerous, 
under  the  mistaken  impression  that  better  drainage  will 
thereby  be  secured.  Nor  should  it  be  so  low  as  to  allow 
water  to  stand  uj)on  it  in  dcpressi(jns.  Under  ordinary 
circumstances  one  inch  or  one  inch  and  a  half  to  the  foot  is 


184  AGRICULTURE. 

a  proper  grade;  that  is,  a  roadbed  twenty-six  feet  wide 
should  be  from  thirteen  to  twenty  inches  higher  at  the 
center  than  at  the  side. 

Quality  of  Gravel. — The  gravel  should  preferably  be 
sharp,  clean,  and  of  uniform  size.  Pit  gravel  usually  con- 
tains too  much  earthy  matter,  and  where  the  latter  is  in 
excess,  the  gravel,  as  a  road-making  material,  is  useless. 
Lake  gravel  is  apt  to  be  rounded,  water-worn,  and  lacking 
in  the  necessary  earthy  matter  to  make  a  solid  and  compact 
surface,  but  is  generally  a  better  road  material  than  pit' 
gravel.  A  coating  of  pit  gravel  with  a  surfacing  of  creek 
gravel  is  a  good  combination.  All  large  stones  should  be 
removed,  as  they  will  work  to  the  surface,  and  will  then 
roll  loosely  or  form  rough  protuberances. 

Placing  the  Gravel. — The  gravel  should  be  spread  evenly 
over  the  surface  of  the  sub-grade  to  a  depth  of  six  or  eight 
inches,  and  to  the  required  width,  then  rolled  with  a  heavy 
roller.  Rolling  should  be  performed  in  showery  weather, 
as  it  is  impossible  to  consolidate  dry  earth  or  gravel.  The 
heavier  the  roller  the  better  will  be  the  results,  but  if  a 
heavy  roller  cannot  be  obtained,  a  light  roller  is  much  bet- 
ter than  none.  The  roller  should  be  passed  over  the  sur- 
face until  the  gravel  or  earth  is  so  compact  as  not  to  be 
displaced  and  rutted  by  the  wheels  of  a  wagon  passing 
over  it  with  an  ordinary  load.  The  surface  must  be  main- 
tained smooth  and  hard,  to  shed  water  and  resist  wear. 
Every  municipality  should  have  a  roller,  but  whether  one 
can  be  obtained  or  not  the  gravel  should  not  be  left  in  a 
heap  just  as  it  falls  from  the  wagon.     Spread  it  evenly. 

Repairs. — Gravel  roads  already  constructed  will  need  re- 
pair. By  the  use  of  road  machinery,  scrape  the  surface 
and  cut  off  the  corners,  which  will  have  formed  at  the  focU  of 
the  grade  by  the  washing  down  of  dusty  material  from  the 
crown  of  the  road.  Loosen  the  surface,  particularly  that 
part  of  the  traveled  portion  and  where  the  road  is  rutted, 
with  picks,  or,  if  possible,  with  road  machinery  ;  then  apply 
a  coating  of  gravel,  and  roll  thoroughly.  It  is  of  more  im- 
portance, however,  to  see  that  the  drains  are  not  obstructed 
in  their  course  and  that  their  outlets  are  free  and  open.* 

*  See  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  95,  "Good  Roads  for  Farmers,"  Washing 
ion,  1899, 


AGRTCULTUKAL   EKGIl^EERTNG. 


185 


IMPORTANCE   OF  GOOD   ROADS. 

It  is  estimated  that  it  costs  a  farmer  more  to  haul  a  bushel  of 
wheat  than  it  does  a  railroad  to  haul  a  ton  ;  that  our  poor  roads 
cost  the  farmer  at  least  $15.00  a  year  for  every  horse,  and  that 
good  earth  roads  would  save  more  than  half  the  cost  of  hauling, 
and  good   permanent  roads   more   than  three   quarters  of  it. 

(GiLMORB.) 

Force  Required  to  Dratu  a  Load  on  Different  Kinds  of  Roads. 


Earth  road 

Gravel    "   

Macadam  road . . . 
Telford  "  ... 
Plank  "    ... 

Stone  trackway.. 


Force 

Required  to 

Draw  a  Gross 

Load  of 
2240  Pounds. 


Pounds 
200 

65 
46 

12j 


Steepest 
Grade  (rise 
per  100  ft.) 

on  which 
Vehicle  will 

not  Roll 
Back. 


Feet 
8.9 
6.4 
2.9 


Draught  on  a  Level  Com- 
pared with  that  on  Dif- 
ferent Grades.  Rise  in 
feet  per  100  feet. 


3 

6 

9 

12 

1-3 

T.7 

2.0 

2-3 

1-5 

1.9 

2.4 

2.9 

2.0 

3-1 

4.1 

5-1 

2-5 

3-9 

5-4 

6.« 

2.(3 

4-3 

5-9 

7-5 

0.4 

II. 7 

17.1 

22.3 

15 


2.7 

3-3 
6.1 
8.2 
9.1 
27.5 


TRACTIVE  FORCE  REQUIRED  I  OR  CARRIAGES 

of  one  ton,  on  a  level  road.    (McConnell.) 

Force  of  Trac- 
Description  of  Road.  tion  per  Ton. 

1.  On  rails 8  lbs. 

2.  Well-made  pavement 33   " 

3.  Macadamized  road 44  to  67   " 

4.  Turnpike,  hard  and  dry ...     6S  " 

5.  "  dirty 88" 

6.  Hard  compact  loam iig  " 

7.  Gravel 150  " 

8.  Sandy  and  gravelly 210  " 

9.  Ordinary  by-road 237   " 

10.  Turnpike,  newly-gravelled 320  " 

11.  Loose  sandy  road 457  ** 

A  horse  produces  his  greatest  mechanical  effect  in  drawing  a 
load  2^  miles  per  hour  with  a  tractive  force  of  150  lbs. 


18G 


AGKICULTURE. 


FRACTION  OF  TUK  WFIGHT  OF  A  VEHICLL] 
AM)  LOAD  mX^L'li:i:i>  TO  3IOVE  SAMF  OX  A 
liKVEL   KOAD.     iMukin.) 


Character  of  the  Vehicle. 

Character  of  the  Road. 

4--      . 

Trucks, 
4-wheeled, 
3   and  4-horse. 

4-horse  Stage- 
coaches, 
on  Springs. 

2-horse  Car- 
riages. 
Body  on 
Springs. 

Firm  soil,  covered  with  gravel 

4  to  6  inches  deep 

Firm    embankment,      covered 

\vi  li  gravel  li  to  i^  inch  dec[). 
Eaiili    embankment,    in    very 

good  condition.          ...      .    . 

Bridge    flooring   of    thick   oak 

plank 

1*2 

1 
4  1 

1 
s 

2'g 
1 

46 

k\ 

1 
5H 

24 

I 
T< 

eV 

\ 

1 
10 

1 

1 

H 
4V 

Brokenaione  Roa<i  : 
In  very   good   condition,  very 

drj'.  compact  and  even    . 
A  little  moisi  or  a  little  dusty. . 
F"irin.  but  with  luts  ;ind  mud. 
Very   bad.   ruts  4  to  4J  inilies 

deep,  thick  mud 

7's 

V 

33 

Uaik 

4'S 

.'■ 

1 

12 

h 

1 
44 

Trot. 

4*1 

2V 
I'fl 

1 
1  0 

Walk. 

3V 

2-2 

1 
12 

Trot 

4-2 

1 

10 

GooJ  pavement,  drv..     ... 
"              "            covered  with 
mud 

1 

33 

3fj 

TRACTIVE    POWER   OF   HORSES   AT  DIFFERENT 
SPEED.     (Tr.mtwinr.) 
The  average  traction  of  a   horse  on  a  level  and  actually 
pulling  for  ten  hours  in  the  day  may  be  assumed  as  follows: 


Miles  per  hour. 

Lbs.  Traction,     l 

Miles  per  hour. 

Lbs.  Traction. 

\ 

333-33 

2i 

1 1 1 .  II 

I 

250 

2* 

100 

ij 

200 

2i 

90.91 

li 

166.66 

3 

83.33 

I* 

T42.86 

3i 

7143 

2 

125 

4 

62.50 

If  the  horse  works  for  a  smaller  number  of  hours,  his 
traction  may  increase  as  the  hours  diminish,  down  to  about 
5  hours  per  day  and  for  speeds  of  about  from  i^^^  to  3  miles 
per  hour. 


AGRlCULTUltAl.    ENGlXEERI^^G. 


187 


EFFECT  OF   INCLINATION  ON  TllACTIVE  FORCE. 

(U.    S.     DkPAKTMENT    ok    AgRICI'LI  IjKU.) 


Raie  of 

Angle  witli  the 

Tractive  Force, 
Pounds. 

Equivalent 
I.eni^lh  of  Level 

Incliiiaiion. 

Level. 

Road  in  Miles. 

Le  el. 

0°     00'     00" 

38 

1. 00 

I  in   50J 

0        6      53 

42 

1 .10 

I  in   10a 

0      34      23 

.S8 

1-52 

I  in     80 

0      42      58 

63 

1.66 

I  in     60 

0       57      18 

71 

1  87 

I  in     50 

1       08      16 

78 

2.05 

I  in     40 

I       25      57 

88 

2.30 

1  in     30 

I        54       37 

104 

2.73 

I   in     25 

2        17       26 

118 

3.10 

I  in     20 

2        51       21 

138 

363 

I  in     15 

3       43       5t 

171 

4.50 

I  in     10 

5       4-^       53 

238 

6.26 

The  table  gives  the  tractive  force  necessary  to  draw  i  ton 
over  the  best  macadam  road  of  various  grades,  and  the 
equivalent  length  of  each  mile  of  grade  in  miles  of  level 
road. 

The  effect  of  the  inclination  can  be  calculated  from  the 
following  foi  inula: 

J^  =  J^  -^  a  PF, 

where  F  =  force  required  to  draw  the  load  on  the  level, 
a  =  the  grade,  expressed  by  a  fraction,  W=  the  weight  of 
the  load  in  pounds,  /v'  =  force  required  to  draw  the  load  up 
the  incline  in  question. 

According  to  Gillespie,  if  a  horse  can  pull  on  a  level 
1000  pounds,  on  a  rise  of 


I  y^oof  in 

100  feet  he  draws  900  lbs. 

50     '•      •'        "  810  •• 

44     "      •'        "  750   " 

40     "      "        "  720   " 

30     '*      "        "  640   " 


I  /oo^  in 

25  feet  he  draws  540  lbs. 
24  "   "   "    500  " 
20  "   "   "    400  " 
10  "  "   "    250  " 


188 


AGRICULTURE. 


EFFECTS  OF  SURFACE  ON  TRACTIVE  FORCE. 

(Various  Authorities,  compiled  by  Herring.) 


Description  of  Road. 


Loose  sand 

Loose  gravel  (deep) 

Loose  gravel  (4  inches)  . 
Common  gravel  road  . . . 

Good  gravel 

Hard-rolled  gravel 

Ordinary  dirt  road 

Hard  clay 

Hard,  dry  dirt  road 

Macadam,  little  used. .   . 

Macadam,  bad 

Macadam,  poor  

Macadam,  common 

Good  macadam,  wet 

Best  French  macadam.. 


Tractive 

Force, 

Lbs. 


448 
320 
222 

147 
88 

75 
224 
112 

89 
140  to  97 
160 
112 

64 
75  to  42 

45 


Description  of  Road. 


Very    hard    and    smooth 

macadam 

Best  macadam 

Cobblestone,  ordinary  ... 

Cobblestone,  good 

Belgian  block 

Belgian  block  in  Paris  . . , 

Belgian  block,  good 

Stone  block,  ordinary 

Stone  block,  good 

Stone  block,  London 

Asphalt 

Granite  tramway 

Iron  railway 


Tractive 
Force, 
Lbs. 


46 
5-2  to  32 
140 

75 
56  to  26 
54  to  34 

34i 

90 

45 

36 

17 
12J  to  13J 
8  to  iij 


The  velocity  is  in  all  cases  taken  at  3  miles  per  hour. 

COST  OF  HAULING  FARM  PRODUCE  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 


Eastern  States 

Northern  States. 

Middle-Southern  States 

Cotton  States 

Prairie  States   

Pacitic  Coast  and  Mountain  States 

Averages  for  the  United  States 


to 


>  o 

< 


Miles. 

5-9 
6.9 
8.8* 

12.6 
8.8 

23-3 


be.     • 
V  o  u 


y 


rt- 


< 


Lbs. 

2216 


1397 
2409 
2197 


2003 


o.  u 
en  xi 

V 

^  o 


Cents. 
32 
27 

31 
25 
22 
22 


u  OT" 

^  ^  o 

CA    U    -, 

O  o-S 

—  C   c 

a  o  V 


S1.S9 
1.86 
2.7a 

3-05 
1.94 

5-12 


S3. 02 


*  Middle  States. 


The  total  weight  of  farm  products  in  1895  was  estimated 
at  219,824,227  tons  ;  if  the  forest  products  hauled  over  the 
public  roads  be  added  to  this,  we  get  313,349,227  tons, 
which  at  83.02  per  ton,  makes  a  total  for  the  annual  cost  of 


AGRICULTUKAL    EXGINEERING. 


189 


hauling  on  the  public  roads  of  $946,414,665.  Nearly,  if  not 
quite,  two-thirds  of  this  vast  expense  may  be  saved  by  road 
improvement,  and  this  at  a  total  cost  not  exceeding  the 
losses  of  3,  or  at  most  4,  years  by  bad  roads  (Circ.  19,  Office 
of  Road  Inquiry,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.). 

TUAXSPOKTATIOX  ON  THE  FAR3I.  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 
An  ordinary  wagon  drawn  by  two  horses  will  carry  at 
each  load  I  ton  to  ih  tons  of  hay,  grain,  manure,  etc  ,  over 
a  good  road;  with  four  horses,  3-4  tons.  According  to  dis- 
tance, the  number  of  loads  in  a  day  should  be  as  follows: 

Niiviber  of  Loads  Hauled  per  Day, 

No.   )f  Loads  with!  tm,. _  No.  of  Loads  with 


Distance. 

Eighth  mile. , 
Quarter  mile; 


Horses. 

16-18 
12-16 


0.xen. 

14-16 
10-14 


Distance.  ri  ,  > 

Horses.  Uxeii. 

Ha]f  mile 10-14  8-12 

Mile  to  mile  and  a  half.     6-9  5-7 


IjABOR     one     horse     is     able     to     PERFOR3I 

at  different  rates  of  speed  on  canals,  railroads,  and 
turnpikes.     (Drawing  force,  83^^  lbs.)     (Waring.) 


Useful  Effect  for  i  Day,  drawn  1  mile. 

Duration  of 
Day's  Work, 

Speed  per 

Hour,  miles. 

hours. 

On  a  Canal, 

On  a  Railroad, 

On  a  Turnpike, 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

2^ 

"^ 

520 

"5 

14 

3,, 

8 

243 

92 

12 

zVi 

6 

154 

82 

10 

4 

aVz 

102 

72 

9 

5 

2  9/10 

52 

57 

7-3 

6 

2 

30 

48 

6 

7 

i^ 

19 

41 

5 

8 

iJ^ 

12.8 

36 

4-5 

9 

9/10 

9 

32 

4 

10 

V\ 

6.5 

28.8 

3.6 

PERFORMANCE  OF  ONE  TEA31  AND  PLOUGH  IN 
A  DAY,  IN  ACRES  AND  TENTHS.  (Waring.) 


C   „  t« 

0  "T  fi 

•-.s 

;^  0  '-' 

Acres. 

idth 
row 
nch 

Acres. 

idth 
row 
feet 

Acies. 

idth 
row 
feet 

Acres. 

^1" 

^  =  ' 

^^ 

^  = 

5 

I.O 

12 

2.4 

2 

4.8 

^Vi 

13.2 

6 

1.2 

14 

2.8 

-^Vi 

6.0 

6 

14.4 

7 

1.4 

10 

3-2 

3 

7.2 

6^ 

15.6 

8 

1.6 

18 

3-6 

zM 

8.4 

7,, 

16.8 

9 

-  0 

20 

4.0 

4 

9.6 

7^ 

18.0 

TO 

:..D 

i2 

4-4 

A¥i 

10.8 

8 

19  2 

II 

2.2 

s 

12.0 

100 


AGRICULTURE. 


THE   EFFECT   OF   AVIDE   AVAGOX-TIRES. 

The  effect  of  wide  and  narrow  tires  for  wagons  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  following  results  of  carefully  conducted 
experiments  by  the  Studebaker  Wagon  Co.,  South  Bend, 
Ind.  In  the  trials  given  in  the  second  column  i|-inch  tires 
had  been  subsiituted  for  4-inch  tires.  (Agr.  of  Pa.,  1894; 
see  also  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  165;  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  13, 
and  Utah  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  4.) 


Weififht  of  wagon  and  load 

Draft  to  start  load  on  block  pavement 

Draft  to  mov-i  load  at  a  dead  pull  on  block  pave- 
ment...        

Draft  to  start  load  on  good  hard,  sandy  road 

Draft  to  move  load  at  a  dead  pull  on  good  hard, 
sandy  road   

Draft  to  start  load  on  good  level  gravel  road..  .   . 

Draft  to  move  load  at  a  dead  pull  on  good  level 
gravel  road    

Draft  10  start  load  on  muddy  road 

Draft  to  move  load  at  a  dead  pull  on  muddy  road.. 


Width  of  Tires. 

4  inches. 

il  inches. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

4345 

42.^5 

350 

300 

100 

75 

700 

725 

275 
600 

300 
650 

175 
800 

175 
900 

550 

500 

AVERAGE  QUANTITY  OF  STONE  REQUIRED  PER 
YEAR  TO  KEEP  10  FEET  OF  ROAD,  AVIDTII  = 
20  FEET,  IN  REPAIR.     (Heuschei.) 


Cub.  ft 

1.  Good  material  and  heavy  travel 15-20 

2.  Good  material  and  medium  amount  of 

travel 10-15 

3.  Good  material  and  light  travel 5-10 

4.  Medium  material  and  heavy  travel 20-25 

5.  Medium  material  and  medium  amount 

of  travel 15-20 

6.  Medium  material  and  light  travel 10-15 

7.  Third-rate  material  and  heavy  travel. .    25-30 

8.  Third-rate  material  and  medium  amount 

of  travel 20-25 

9.  Third-rate  material  and  light  travel. . .    15-20 


Cub.  yds. 
.55-  .74 

37-  .55 
18-  .37 
74-  -92 

55-  .74 
37-  -55 
92-1.10 

74-  -92 
55-  .74 


AGRICULTURAL    ENGINEERING. 


lor 


INTERIOR  DIMENSIONS    OF  FAR3I  BUILDINGS. 

(McCoNNELL.) 


Barn ... 

"    (straw)  

Cattle  feeding-boxes,  double 

"  "  "        single     

Cattle-sheds,  for  each  animal 

Cart-sheds,  etc.,  each  arch 

Cow-stable,  for  each  cow,  double 

"        "  "       "        "       single 

Dairy 

Fold  -yards,  for  each  animal 

Granary   

Hospital   

Manure-house  

Pigsties,  for  each  3  animals 

Poultry- house 

Root -house 

Stable,  for  each  horse 

Workshop 

General  dimensions  of  other  apartments 


Length, 


40 
60 


4 

4 

20 

5 
30 

18 
18 
6 
18 
ao 

6.5 
18 


Breadth. 


ft. 
20 
20 
20 
10 

15 
20 

30 
20 
20 
30 
20 


18 
20 
18 
18 


Height. 


ft. 


6i-  ft.  allowed  to  the  length  of  the  stable  for  each  horse  in  it 
and  7  or  8  ft.  for  every  pair  of  cows  in  cow-stable.  Horses 
must  each  have  1200  cu.  ft.  of  space,  and  cattle  800  cu,  ft., 
where  stalled  in  stables.  Cattle-boxes  to  be  sunk  2  ft.  below 
surface  and  raised  by  a  dwarf  wall  i  ft.  above.  Cattle-folds 
and  sheds  should  have  a  length  of  5  ft.  for  every  animal  they 
are  intended  to  contain;  when  covered,  150  sq.  ft.  allowed  to 
every  head.  The  pigsties  have  small  open  areas  attached  to 
each. 


RECIPE    FOR   AVHITEAVASH. 

Slake  half  a  bushel  of  unslaked  lime  with  boiling  water, 
cover  during  the  process  to  keep  in  steam,  strain  the  liquid 
through  a  fine  sieve  or  strainer,  and  add  to  it  a  peck  of 
salt,  previously  dissolved  in  warm  water,  three  pounds  of 
ground  rice  boiled  to  a  thin  paste  and  stirred  in  while  hot, 
half  a  pound  of  Spanish  whiting,  and  one  pound  of  clear 
glue,  previously  dissolved  by  soaking  in  cold  water  and 
then  hanging  over  a  slow  fire  in  a  small  pot  hung  in  a  larger 


192 


AGRICULTURE. 


one  filled  with  water.  Add  five  gallons  of  hot  water  to  the 
mixture,  stir  well,  and  let  it  stand  a  few  days,  covered  from 
dirt.  It  should  be  applied  hot,  for  which  purpose  it  can  be 
kept  in  a  kettle  or  portable  furnace.  The  east  end  of  the 
White  House  in  Washington  is  embellished  by  this  white- 
wash. It  is  recommended  by  the  government  for  white- 
washing light-houses. 

A  pint  of  this  wash  mixture,  if  properly  applied,  will 
cover  one  square  yard,  and  will  be  almost  as  serviceable  as 
paint  for  wood,  brick,  or  stone,  and  is  much  cheaper  than 
the  cheapest  paint. 

Coloring  matter  may  be  added  as  desired.  For  cream 
color  add  yellow  ochre;  pearl  or  lead,  add  lampblack  or 
ivory-black  ;  fawn,  add  proportionately  four  pounds  of 
umber  to  one  pound  of  Indian  red  and  one  pound  of  com- 
mon lampblack;  common  stone  color,  add  proportionately 
four  pounds  raw  umber  to  two  pounds  lampblack. 


TABLE  OF  CUT  NAILS.     (Traotwine.) 


Name. 

Length, 
Inches. 

1 

No.  per 

Lb.     ] 

Name. 

Length, 
Inches. 

No.  per 
Lb. 

"Common"  nails 

2-penny 
3-     "  fine 

3-  '' 

4-  * 

I  "' 

7-  " 

8-  " 

1 

i^ 
If 

2 
2i 

1 

7i6     ^ 
626     , 
440 
300 
210 

163    ! 
123 
93 

470 

330 
196 
116 

280 
200 

80 

66 
60 

29 
21 
IS 
13 
10 

10-penny 
12-     " 
20-     " 
30-     " 
40-     " 
50-     " 
60-     " 

3 

3i 

4 

4^ 

5 

5i 

6 

66 
50 
32 
19 
16 

11 

Finishing-nails... 

4-penny 

5-  " 

6-  " 
8-     " 

If 

2 

2i 

lo-penny 
12-     *■ 
20-     " 

3 
3i 

4 

84 
65 
50 

Slating-nails 

3-penny 

4-      " 

S-penny 

6-     " 

If 
2 

160 
128 

Fence-nails 

2 

2i 

2^ 

3 

3i 

4 

4^ 

5 

2f 

3 

48 
40 

Cut  spikes 

5i 

6 

6i 

7 
8 

8 

7 
6 

5 
3* 

HUMAN   FOODS. 


19a 


XII.    HUMAN    FOODS. 

COMPOSITION    OF    HUMAN    FOOD    MATERIALS.* 

(Atwater.) 

Ordinary  food  materials,  such  as  meat,  fish,  eggs,  pota- 
toes, wheat,  etc.,  consist  of — 

Refuse. — As  the  bones  of  meat  and  fish,  shells  of  shellfish, 
skin  of  potatoes,  bran  of  wheat,  etc. 

Edible  Portion. — As  the  flesh  of  meat  and  fish,  the  white 
and  yolk  of  eggs,  wheat  flour,  etc.  The  edible  portion  con- 
sists of  water  and  nutritive  ingredients  or  nutrients. 

The  principal  kinds  of  nutritive  ingredients  are  protein^ 
fats,  carbohydrates,  and  tniiier  rl  ?natters. 

The  water,  refuse,  and  salt  of   salted   meat  and   fish  are 

called  non-nutrients.      In  comparing  the  values  of  different 

food  materials  for  nourishment  they  are  left  out  of  account. 

Classes  of  Nutrients. — The  following  are  familiar  examples 

of  compounds  of  the  four  principal  classes  of  nutrients. 

[ Albnviinoids,  e.g.,  albumen  (white  of 
I      eggs);  casein  (curd)of  milk;  myosin, 
the    basis    of    muscle    (lean    meat) ; 
Proteids.  \      gluten  of  wheat,  etc. 

Gelatinoids,  e.g.,  collagen  of  tendons; 
ossein  of  bones;  which  yield  gelatin 
Protein.^  I^     or  glue,  etc. 

Meats  and  fish  contain  very  small  quantities  of 
so-called  '"extractives."  They  include  kreatin 
and  allied  compounds,  and  are  the  chief  ingre- 
dients of  beef-tea  and  meat-extract.  They 
contain  nitrogen,  and  hence  are  commonly 
classed  with  protein. 
Fats,  e.g.,  fat  of  meat  ;  fat  (butter)  of  milk  ;  olive-oil  ;  oil 

of  corn,  wheat,  etc. 
Carbohydrates,  e.g.,  sugar,  starch,  cellulose  (woody  fiber),  etc. 
Mineral  matters,    e.g.,   phc^sphate  of   lime,  sodium  chlorid  (com- 
mon salt),  etc. 

*  Extracts  from  "  Foods,  Nutritive  Value  and  Cost  "  (Farmers'  Bulletin  No. 
?3K  and  "  Food  and  Diet  "  (U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Year  Hook,  1804).  See 
also  Farmers'  Uull.  No.  142,  and-Circ.  No.  4',  Rev.,  Office  of  Exp.  Stations. 


l'.)4  AGRICULTURE. 

71ie  Fuel  Value  of  Food. — Heat  and  muscular  power  are 
forms  of  force  or  energy.  The  energy  is  developed  as 
the  food  is  consumed  in  the  body.  It  is  measured  in  the 
laboratory  by  means  of  an  apparatus  called  the  calorimeter. 
The  unit  commonly  used  is  the  calorie,  the  amount  of  heat 
which  would  raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  water 
4°  F.  Instead  of  this  unit,  st)me  unit  of  mechanical  energy 
may  be  used,  e.g.,  the  foot-ton,  which  represents  the  force  re- 
quired to  raise  i  ton  i  foot.  One  calorie  is  equal  to  very  nearly 
1.53  foot-tons. 

The  following  general  estimate  has  been  made  for  the  average 
amount  of  potential  energy  in  i  pound  of  each  of  the  classes  of 
nutrients: 

Calories. 

In  I  pound  of  protein 1,814 

In  I  poiuid  of  fats 4,037 

In  I  pound  of  carbohydrates 1,814 

In  other  words,  when  we  compare  the  nutrients  in  re- 
spect to  their  fuel  values,  their  capacities  for  yielding  heat 
and  mechanical  power,  a  pound  of  protein  of  lean  meat  or 
albumen  of  egg  is  just  about  equivalent  to  a  pound  of 
sugar  or  starch,  and  a  little  over  two  pounds  of  either 
would  be  required  to  equal  a  pound  of  the  fat  of  meat  or 
butter  or  the  body  fat. 

IViiys  in  zvhich  Food  is  Used  in  the  Body.  —  Food  supplies 
the  wants  of  the  body  in  several  ways.      It  either — 

Is  used  to  form  the  tissues  and  fluids  of  the  body; 

Is  used  to  repair  the  wastes  of  tissues; 

Is  stored  in  the  body  for  future  consumption; 

Is  consumed  as  fuel,  its  potential  energy  being  trans- 
formed into  heat  or  muscular  energy,  or  other  forms  of 
energy  required  by  the  body;  or. 

In  being  consumed  protects  tissues  or  other  food  from 
consumption. 

Uses  of  the  Different  Classes  of  A'utrients.  —  Protein  forms 
tissue  (muscle,  tendon,  etc.,  and  fat)  and  serves  as  fuel. 

Fats  form  fatty  tissue  (not  mu.scle,  etc.)  and  serve  as  fuel. 

Carbohydrates  are  transformed  into  fat  and  serve  as  fuel. 


HUMAN   FOODS.  195 

All  nutrients  yield  energy  in  form  of  heat  and  musculaf 
strength. 

In  being  themselves  burned  to  yield  energy  the  nutrients 
protect  each  other  from  being  consumed.  The  protein  and 
fats  of  body  tissue  are  used  like  those  of  food.  An  impor- 
tant use  of  the  carbohydrates  and  fats  is  to  protect  protein 
(muscle,  etc.)  from  consumption. 

Definition  of  Food  and  Food  Economy. — The  views  thus 
presented  lead  to  the  following  definitions:  (i)  Food  is 
that  which,  taken  into  the  body,  builds  tissues  or  yields 
energy;  (2)  the  most  healthful  food  is  that  which  is  best 
fitted  to  the  wants  of  the  user;  (3)  the  cheapest  food  is  that 
which  furnishes  the  largest  amount  of  nutriment  at  the 
least  cost;  (4)  the  best  food  is  that  which  is  both  most 
healthful  and  cheapest. 

We  have,  then,  to  consider  the  kinds  and  amounts  of 
nutrients  in  different  food  materials,  their  digestibility,  and 
the  kinds  and  amounts  needed  for  nourishment  by  people 
doing  different  kinds  of  work. 

In  general,  the  animal  foods  have  the  most  of  protein 
and  fats,  while  the  vegetable  foods  are  rich  in  the  carbo- 
hydrates, starch,  and  sugar.  The  lean  meats  and  fish 
abound  in  protein.  Cheese  has  so  large  a  quantity  of 
protein  because  it  contains  the  casein  of  the  milk.  Among 
the  vegetable  foods,  beans  and  peas  have  a  high  proportion 
of  protein.  The  proportion  in  oatmeal  is  also  large.  In 
wheat  it  is  moderate,  and  in  corn  meal  it  is  rather  small. 
The  materials  with  the  highest  fuel  value  are  those  with 
the  most  fat,  because  the  fuel  value  of  the  fat  is,  weight 
for  weight,  two  and  one-fourth  times  as  great  as  that  of 
either  sugar,  starch,  or  protein.  Hence  fat  pork  and  butter 
lead  the  other  materials  in  fuel  value.  The  fat  meats  in 
general  stand  high  in  this  respect.  So  also  do  the  grains, 
flour,  and  meal,  as  they  have  large  quantities  of  carbo- 
hydrates. Potatoes  are  quite  low  in  the  list  in  respect  to 
fuel  value  as  well  as  protein,  principally  because  they  are 
three-fourths  water.  For  the  same  reason,  milk,  which  is 
seven-eighths  water,  ranks  low  in  respect  to  both  protein 
and  fuel  value. 


196 


AGRICULTURE. 


Dietaries  and  Dieta?-}'  Sta}ida7'ds. — As  the  outcome  of 
a  great  deal  of  observation  and  experiment,  nearly  all  in 
Europe,  standards  have  been  proposed  for  the  amounts 
of  nutrients  and  energy  in  the  daily  food  required  by 
different  classes  of  people.  Those  of  Prof.  Voit,  of  Munich, 
Germany,  are  most  commonly  accepted  by  specialists  in 
Europe.  Voit's  standard  for  a  laboring  man  at  moderately 
hard  muscular  work  calls  for  about  0.25  pound  of  protein 
and  quantities  of  carbohydrates  and  fats  sufficient,  with 
the  protein,  to  yield  3050  calories  of  energy.  Taking  into 
account  the  more  active  life  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
fact  that  well  nourished  people  of  the  working  classes  here 
eat  more  and  do  more  work  than  in  Europe,  and  in  the 
belief  that  ample  nourishment  is  necessary  for  doing  the 
most  and  the  best  work,  I  have  ventured  to  suggest  a 
standard  with  0,28  pound  of  protein  and  3500  calories  of 
energy  for  the  man  at  moderate  muscular  work.  (For  list 
of  dietary    standards,    see  p.  203;  also  Farmers'  Bull.,  No.  142, 

P-35-) 

Calculation  of  Daily  Dietaries. — Due  regard  for  health, 

strength,  and  purse  requires  that  food  shall  supply  enough 
protein  to  build  tissue  and  enough  fats  and  carbohydrates 
for  fuel,  and  that  it  shall  not  be  needlessly  expensive. 

On  the  basis  of  the  standards  for  dietaries  given  on 
page  175,  various  combinations  of  food  materials  for  daily 
dietaries  may  be  made  by  calculations  from  the  table, 
showing  percentages  of  nutrients,  etc.,  in  food  materials 
(p.  169).  Thus  if  a  dietary  for  a  man  at  moderately  hard 
muscular  work  is  to  be  made  up  of  round  beefsteak,  butter, 
potatoes,  and  bread,  it  may  be  calculated  as  follows: 


Protein. 

Calories. 

Round  steak 

I  pound  contains 

Pounds. 
.18 
.01 
.019 
.088 

855 
3.615 

325 
1,280 

Butter     

I  pound  contains 

Potatoes  

I  pound  contains 

Wheat  bread 

I  pound  contains 

13  ounces  contain 

Round  steak 

.14 

.02 
.12 

695 
680 

Butter     

3  ounces  contain 

Potatoes 

6  ounces  contain 

320 
1,760 

Wheat  bread 

22  ounces  contain 

Total   

.28 
.28 

3-455 
3-500 

Standard  tor  man  at  mod- 
erate muscular  work 

HUMAN    FOODS. 


197 


PERCENTAGES      OF     NUTRIENTS,     AVATER,     AND 
REFUSE   IN  SPECIMENS  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 

(Atwater.) 


Food  Materials. 


Animal  Foods,  as  Ptirchased. 


Pork: 


Beef:  Neck 

Shoulder , 

Chuckrib 

Rib 

Sirloin 

Round  steak 

Side  without  kidney  fat 

Rump,  corned 

Flank,  corned 

Veal:  Shoulder 

Mutton:  Shoulder 

Leg 

Loin 

Side,  without  kidney  fat.. 

Shoulder  roast,  fresh 

Ham,  salted,  smoked   

Chicken 

Turkey  

Eggs,  in  shell 

Fish,  etc. :  Flounder,  whole , 

Bluefish,  dressed 

Codfish,  dressed , 

Shad,  whole 

Mackerel,  whole 

Halibut,  dressed , 

Salmon,  whole 

Salt  codfish 

Smoked  herring 

Salt  mackerel ... . 

Canned  salmon 

Lobsters 

Oysters 


Animal  Foods,  Edible  Portion, 

Beef:  Neck , 

Shoulder 

Chuck  rib 

Rib  ..    ., 

Sirloin 

Round 

Side,  without  kidney  fat. . . 

Rump,  corned 

Flank,       *'       

Veal:  Shoulder 

Mutton:  Shoulder ,., 

Leg 

Loin 


c    .. 
ffi=: 


C^ 


i 

20. 0 
12.6 
14.6 

21  .0 

19-5 
7.8 

19.2 
5-0 

12. 1 
17.9 
16  3 
t8.i 
15-8 
17-3 
14  6 
II. 4 
38  2 
32  4 
i?-7 
66.8 
48.6 
29.9 
50.1 
44.8 
17.7 

35  3 
42.1 

50-9 
40.4 
4.9 
62.1 
82.3 


Edible  Portion. 


49.6 
55-8 
49-5 


Nutrients. 


H 


30- 4 
31 .6 

35-9 
.2  40.8 
32.7 
31-3 
36-5 
24.2 
44.2 
25 
34 
3^ 
42 


4»  3 
60. 9 

44-3 
70.8 

43-7 
56-7 
49.0 
50.6 

41  5 
44.2 
43.0J42 

36.851.8 
|44-6  17  2 
44  7  22.9 


63 
27 .2 

43-0 
58.5 
35-2 
40.4 
61 .9 
40.6 

40.5 
19.2 
28.1 

59-3 
31.0 

15-4 


62.0 
63.9 
58. o 
48.1 
60.0 
68  2 
54-8 
58.1 
49.8 
68.8 
58.6 
61.8 
49-3 


23 
6. 
II. 
II. 6 

14-7 
15.0 
20.4 

24 
17.6 
29  9 
31-5 
35.8 
69 
2-3 


?,€>■ 
42, 

5i' 
40. 

31' 
45- 
41. 

50. 

3«' 

41.4 

38.2 

50.7 


% 

15  6 
17.0 
15.0 
12.2 
15.0 
18.0 

13-9 

16.7 

12.4 

16.6 

^5 

15 

12.6 

15.0 

13.6 

14.8 

16.1 
12. 1 

5-2 

9 
10.6 

9- 
10. o 

15 

14-3 
16 

20.2 

14.7 

19-3 

5-5 

I.I 


17- 
13- 
14. 
20. 
i8. 
18. 
15  o 


14.0 

13-7 
20. 1 
27.9 
16.4 
12.3 
21.8 

5^ 
29.2 

70 

15.6 
29-5 
23 
28 

34 


5-9 


03 
0.6 
0.2 


4 

4-3 

4.4 

8.8 

0.4 


15-3 
0.7 
0.2 


17 

'5-6 
23 -5 
35-6 
20.5 
10. 1 
27  1 
26.6 
33-0 
9- 
22.4 
19. 
35 -o 


o  i! 


0.1 

0.6 


0.9 
0.8 
0.7 
0.8 

1 .0 


2.4 

2.6 

0.9 
0.8 


2.4 
0.9 
0.9 
0.9 

05 
0.7 
0.8 
0.7 
0.7 
0.9 

I.O 

1.2 
0.9 

1-7 
1 .2 
0.6 
0.4 


1 .0 
1 .0 
0.9 
0.9 
1.0 
1.2 
0.9 
2.0 

30 
1.2 
0.9 
0.9 
0.7 


198 


AGRICULTURE. 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  3IATEKIALS. 

Nutritive  ingredients,  refuse,  and  fuel  value. 
Nutrients. 


Non-nutrients. 


Protein     Fats.    Carbo-      Mineral 
hydrates,  matters 


Water.  Refuse. 


Fuel  value. 


Calories. 


Protein  compounds,  e.  g.,  lean  of  meat,  white  of  egg,  casein  (curd)  of  milk,  and 
gluten  of  wheat,  make  muscle,  blood,  bone,  etc. 
Fats,  e.  g.,  fat  of  meat,  butter,  and  oil,  |   serve  as  fuel  to  yield  heat 
Carbohydrates,  e.  g.,  starch  and  sugar,  (        and  muscular  power. 

yutrient»,etc..v.ct.  IQ  20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90  lOO 
F,-ei  value  of  ^'.fb.  JOQ  800  1200  1600  2000  2400  2800  dSOO  3600  4(J00 
■         1  I  I  I  I  I      _1 


Without  bone. 


IILMAK    FOODS. 


199 


PERCENTAGES   OF    NUTRIENTS,   ETC.,    IN   FOOD 
3IAT  EniAIjS—Con^tnueci. 


Food   Materials. 


Anifnal  Foods,  Edible  Portio7i. 

Mutton:  Side,  without  kidney  fat. 
Pork:   Shoulder  roast,  fresh 

Ham,  salted,  smoked , 

Fat.  salted   , 

Sausage:  Pork.. 

Eologna   1 

Chicken   

Turkey 

E^'«s    

Milk  

Butter 

Oleomarofarine 

Cheese:   Fiill-creara 

Skiin-niiik 

Fish:  FlciU'i.ler 

Had<lock 

Codtish   

Shad , 

Mackerel 

Halibut   

Salmon 

Salt  cod 

Herring,  salt . . . . 

Mackerel,  salt... .      , 

Oysters 

Vegetable  Foods. 

Wheat  flour , 

Graham  flour  (wheat) 

Rye  flour 

Buckwheat  flour 

Da t meal 

Cornmeal 

Rice 

Peas 

Beans , 

Potatoes 

Sweet  potatoes 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Onions 

String  beans 

Green  peas 

Green  corn   

Tomatoes 

Cabbage. 

Apples 

Sugar,  granulated 

Molasses 

White  bread  (wheat). .    

Boston  crackers 


Edible  Portion 

1) 

Nutrients. 

c 

2  >- 

1    — ;   U5 

re  u 

*-» 

^ 

-^T 

m  Z> 

0 

0 

u 

% 

is 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

53-5 

46.5 

16.9 

28.7 

0.9 

50.3 
41-5 
12. 1 

49-7 

58.5 
87  g 

16.0 

32.8 

39-1 

8"  8 

0.0 

16.7 

2 . 7 

0.9 

13. 8 

41.2 

58.8 

42  8 

22 

62.4 
72.2 

37.6 
27.8 

18.8 

15.8 
2  0 

24  4 

•    1 4 

66.2 

33-8 
26.2 

23  9 
14  9 

8.7 
10.5 

1 .2 

73.8 

0  8 

87  0 

13.0 

3-b 

4.0 

4-' 

1       0  7 

10.5 

89.0 

I.O 

8s. 0 

0. 

;      30 

II  0 

8q  s 

0  6 

8s. 0 

0  i. 

^      3-0 

30  2 

09.8 

28.. H 

35 -5 

I  i 

5      4.2 

1    41   3 

.58.7 

38.4 

6  8 

8.C 

)        4-6 

i    84.2 

IS. 8 

13.8 

0  7 

I   3 

1    8. .7 

18.3 

16.8 

0.  :; 

I  2 

82.6 

17  4 

IS   8 

0  -t 

I    2 

70.6 

29.4 

18.6 

9   .-^ 

1.3 

73  4 

26.6 

18.2 

71 

13 

75  4 

24  6 

18   3 

S   2 

I     I 

63  6 

3&  4 

21   0 

'3   4 

1.4 

S3  6 

21.4 

0   c. 

.       I  6 

34-6 

36  4 

15.8 

1    5 

43-4 

17   3 

26   4 

2  6 

87.1 

1 

12  9 

5.0 

I  .2 

3-/ 

r         2.0 

12  5 

8-5 

1 1  .0 

I    I 

74. c 

)         0.5 

13   I 

86.9 

11.7 

1-7 

71/ 

I  8 

'3^ 

86.9 

6.7 

0.8 

78.7 

0.7 

14  6 

85  4 

6  q 

1.4 

76.1 

1.0 

7.6 

92.4 

15    I 

7-1 

68.-. 

2.0 

15-0 

85.0 

9-' 

3-8 

70  c 

14 

12.4 

87.6 

7-4 

0  4 

79-4 

0.4 

12.3 

87.7 

26.7 

1-7 

56.4 

2  9 

12  6 

87.4 

23.1 

2.0 

59  2 

31 

78  9 

21    I 

2. 1 

0.  I 

17.? 

1.0 

71.1 

28.9 

1-5 

0  4 

26. c 

)        1.0 

80  4 

10  6 

1.2 

0.2 

8.2 

1.0 

88  6 

II. 4 

I.I 

0.4 

S.c; 

1.0 

87  6 

12  4 

1.4 

0.3 

10. 1 

0.6 

87.2 

12.8 

2.2 

0.4 

9.4 

0.8 

78.1 

21.9 

4-4 

0.6 

16. c 

0.9 

81.3 

18.7 

2.8 

l.I 

13.2 

0.6 

..6.0 

4.0 

0.8 

0.4 

2.5 

0.3 

QT.g 

8.1 

2.1 

0-3 

5 -5 

I.I 

83.2 

16.8 

0.2 

0.4 

VS-9 

0.3 

2.0 

98.0 
75-4 

97.8 
73  I 

0.2 

24.6 

2.3 

32  3 

67.7 

8.8 

1-7 

5f-3 

0  9 

8.3 

91.7 

10.7 

9-9 

6 

8  7 

1     2.4 

200 


AGRICULTURE. 


PECUNIARY  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD. 

Amounts  of  actually  nutritive  ingredients  obtained  in  different 
food  materials  for  25  cents. 
[Amount  of  nutrients  in  pounds.     Fuel  value  in  calories.] 
Protein.     Fats.    Carbohiidratcs.  Fuel  value. 


Beef,  sirloin 


Cls. 


25.0 


n». 


1.00 


Weights  of  nutrients  and  calories  of 
energy  in  25  cents  worth. 


ILb. 


3  Lbs. 


2000,  Cal 


1[ 


6000  CaL 


5  Lbs. 
lOOOO^Pal 


Beef,  round 


Beef,  neck 


Mutton,  leg 


22.0 


Ham,  smoked 


16.0 


Salt  f'Ork,  very  fat 


Codfish ,  fresh 


Codfish,  salt 


Mackerel,  salt 


6.0;      4.i; 


12.0 


8.0 


7.0 


12.0 


1.50  I 


3.57  t 

ts--' 

2.0S 


1^ 


Oysters,  35  rents  (juari 


IS.Oi      1.13 


I 


Eggs,  25  cents  dozen 


14.7 


Milk,  7  cents  quart 


3.5 


Cheese,  whole  milk 


15.0 


Cheese,  skim  milk 


8.0 


1.70 


e: 


7. 11 

i.or 


3.13 


Butter 


30.0 


Sugar 


5.0 


O.M, 


Wheatfiouv 


3.0 


Wheat  bread 


7.0 


Com  meal 


2.5 


Beans 


5.0 


Potatoes 


1.2 


MM^M^^^^^^^Mi 


'^^^ 


10.00  L 


5.00 


20.  OO  1 


Standard  for  daily  i 
diet  for  man  at  : 
moderate  work,     ' 


German.*  i 
Americar..]'. 

*Voit 


■\Atwater. 


HUMAN    FOODS. 


201 


AMOUXTS  OF  NUTRIENTS  FURNISHED  FOR 
TAVENTY-FIVE  CENTS  IN  FOOD  3IATERIALS 
AT   ORDINARY   PRICES.     (Atwater.) 


Food  Materials  as  Furnished. 


3[eais,  etc. 

Beef:  Neck 

Chuck-ribs 

Ribs , 

Shoulder , 

Sirloin 

Rump 

Round,  first  cut 

Round,  second  cut.. 
Flank,  corned 

Corned  and  canned. 

Liver  

Mutton:  Shoulder 

Leg 

Loin 

Pork:  Rib  roast 

Smoked  ham,  whole 

Salt  fat  pork. 

Pork  sausage 

Poultry,  etc. :  Chicken 

Turkey 

Fishy  etc. 
Mackerel,  whole 

Bluefish,  dressed..., 

Cod,  dressed 


cts. 


6 
16 


]fs 

\\\ 

I  15 
i  10 
)    8 

I  10 

i  14 

8 

I  20 

1  15 

\^' 
I  20 

{  20 

\M 
\t 

\  12 
i»5 


16 
23 

18 


Twenty-five  Cents  will  pay  for 


0  nS 

15  .-« 

H 

lbs. 

3-13 
4.17 
1.56 
2.08 
1. 14 

1-39 
1.79 
2.50 
1. 14 
1-39 

1  39 
1.67 

1-39 
1.67 
2.50 

3- 13 
1.67 
2.50 

1-39 
1.79 

313 
1.25 
1 .67 
1 .00 

1-25 
1. 00 

1-25 
2.08 
2.50 
1.56 
2.08 
1.67 
2.08 
1.67 
2.08 
1. 14 
1.56 
1.09 
1.38 

1-39 
1.67 
2.50 
1 .67 
2.50 
2.50 

3-»3 
4.17 


Nutrients. 


o 

H 


lbs. 

•95 
1.27 

.56 
•75 
•47 
•57 
•57 
•79 
•37 
•45 
.63 
.76 
•  44 
•52 
•52 
.65 
77 
I .  II 
.66 
.85 
.96 
■4^ 
.58 
•31 
•39 
•43 
•53 
.88 
1.06 
.86 
1.08 
1. 17 
1.03 
.98 
1 .22 
.32 
•45 
•37 
•47 

.22 

•25 
•37 
.19 
.28 
.28 
•36 
46 


lbs. 

•  49 
.65 
•23 
•31 
.14 

•  17 

•  30 
•43 

•  17 
.21 
.19 
•23 
•25 
•30 
•35 
•44 
.21 

•31 

•37 
.48 
.63 
.18 
•25 

•  15 
.19 

•13 

.15 


'•J 


•25 
•3' 

.02    T 
.02I1 

•'3 

•  2Q 
.28 
•38 
.26 
•32 

•14 

•»7 
•25 
.16 

•25 
•25 
•33 
•44 


lbs. 

44 
58 
31 
42 
32 
39 
25 
34 
19 
23 
43 
52 

'7 
21 

15 
18 

49 
73 
24 
31 
17 
22 

31 
16 
20 
29 
37 
58 
70 
58 
72 
38 
72 
72 


lbs. 


©•2>, 

C  O  c 


cals. 

2765 
3655 
1735 
2350 
1610 
i960 
1615 

2235 
1 120 
1360 
2170 
2620 
1180 

1445 
1285 
1580 
2460 

3655 
1700 
2200 

2095 
1265 

1775 
955 
"95 
1465 
1840 
2970 
5885 
2915 
3615 
586a 

7295 

3465 

4295 

605 

835 

865 

1100 

5^5 
610 
930 
3dO 
T50 
.>'^-5 


202 


AGRICULTURE. 


AMOUNTS  OF  NUTRIENTS  FURNISHED  FOR 
TWENTY-FIVE  CENTS  IN  FOOD  3IATERIAL.S 
AT   ORDINARY   PRICES.— C^«/z««^^. 


Food  Materials  as  Furnished. 


a.-2 


•5Ps 


Fish,  etc. 
Halibut  steaks 

Canned  salmon . 

Oysters,  50  cts.  per  quart 

35     " 

Lobster,  whole 

"        canned 

Eggs  and  Dairy  Products 
Eggs,  35  cts.  per  doz 

"      25     "         "         

"      15     "         "         

Milk,  8  cts.  per  quart 

"    6    "  *'         

Butter 

Cheese,  full  cream 

Vegetable  Foods. 

Potatoes,  $1.00  per  bushel.. . 

.80        " 
.50        •' 

Sweet  potatoes 

Beets 

Turnips 

Sugar 

Dried  beans 

Maize  "  corn"  meal 

Oatmeal 

Wheat  flour 

Wheat  bread 

Crackers 


w 


cts. 

20 

6 

20 

25 
17-5 

jl2 

I   10 

20 


25 
18.; 


35 

25 


Twenty-five  Cents  will  pay  for 


( I- 


1-7 
1.25 
0.85 
i    5 

y  3 


5 
'  4 


O   rt 


Nutrients. 


lbs. 
1.25 
1.56 
I  25 
1 .00 
1.43 
2.08 
S.50 
1.25 


1 .00 

1-37 
2.27 
6.25 

8.33 
12.50 

•71 
1 .00 

1.38 

2.0S 


14.70 

20.00 

29.40 

5.00 

8.33 
12. 
25.00 
12.50 
25.00 

5.00 

4-17 
5.00 
6. 

8.33 
25.00 
5.00 
6.25 
7.14 
8.33 
3-57 
5.00 
2.08 


lbs. 

.26 
•32 
.46 

•»3 
.18 
.14 

•»7 
.28 


•23 
•32 
•53 
.81 
1.08 

^M 
.64 
.90 
.96 

1-45 


•31 
.42 
.62 
.14 
•  24 
.14 
.29 

•13 
.27 
4.90 
364 
4-37 
5  46 
7.08 
21.25 
4.61 

5-47 
6.25 
7.29 
2.42 
3-38 
1. 91 


lbs. 
.19 
.24 
•25 
.06 
.09 
.11 
.14 
•23 


.02 
.04 
.02 

•  03 
.00 
.96 

I-I5 
1.44 

•77 
2.30 

•74 
.69 

•79 
.92 

•31 

•  44 
.21 
•32 


lbs 
.06 
.07 
.20 
.01 
.02 
.01 


lbs. 


.02 
.04 

.26 
•36 
•53 
•  13 


4  8y 
2.47 
2.96 
3^70 
5.88 
17-65 
3-42 
4.68 

5-35 
6.24 
2.01 
2.82 
1.47 

2.31 


:/)(-.  tun 
■lit 

o  o  c 
U 


cals. 
605 
740 
1310 
230 
345 
345 
415 
470 

645 
910 
1490 
2020 
2675 
4065 
2550 
3635 
3850 
4210 

580 
790 
1225 
240 

430 
240 

485 
225 
490 

9095 
6760 
8065 

IIIIO 

13720 

41115 

9255 

10285 

"755 
13695 
4570 
6445 
3970 
S930 


HUM  AX   FOObS. 


203 


DIETARY     STANDARDS.     (Jaffa.) 


■J)  y 
.06 

■s 
X) 

uel  Va- 
e  (Calo- 
ries). 

U- 

J5 

X_3 

^ 

I.  Children.  1-2  years  (average)   

.08 

.16 

76s 

i:S.6 

2.  Children,  2-6  years  (averayre) 

■13 

.oq 

■44 

I  420 

S.o 

3.  Chi  dren.  6-15  years  (average) 

.16 

.  10 

•7' 

2040 

5  2 

4.   Adult  in  full  lie, ilth  — PI  lyf.nr 

.26 

.  I  1 

1. 17 

3'4o 

5^5 

S    Active  laboiers  —  Playfair         

•'54 

.t6 

'■25 

36  JO 

4  7 

6.  M;in  at  uind   rale  vvork— Voit      ...    .  . 

.26 

.  12 

I.  TO 

3055 

5  3 

7.   M.in  at  liartl  work — Volt 

•3^ 

.22 

99 

3370 

4-7 

8.  Man    with    lit.lc    physical    exercise  — 

Atwater 

.20 

.20 

.66 

2450 

5  5 

9.  Man    vviih    light    mu-cular  vvoik--At- 

water                           

.  22 

.22 

■77 

2  3oa 

5-7 

10.  Man  wi  h  moderate  work— Atwater . . 

.28 

.23 

•99 

3Sao 

5^8 

II    Man  with  active  \vo'!< — At  water.. ... . 

■33 

■3^ 

1 .  10 

4060 

S.6 

12.  Man  with  h.trd  v\ori< —Atwater 

•^9 

■5S 

1   4? 

5700 

6.9 

13.  Subsistence  diet- Play >"ir 

•'3 

•oj 

■75 

1760 

6.3 

14.  Aver;igeot  7  dietarie    ^r  p.'ole.ssional 

msn.  Europe                   

■25 

22 

•61 

2670 

4-7 

15.  Average  of  5  dietaries  ut  professional 

men,  United  States 

■  -1 

•34 

1.08 

3925 

6  6 

SU3IMAKY  OF  A31Eill(  AN   DIETARY  STUDIES. 

(Bkv.-\nt  ) 


Families  Studied. 


Average  of  2  l.iborers'  families  in  com- 
fortable circumstances     

Average  of  15  college  clubs  in  Me  ,  Ccnn.. 
Tenn.,  and  Mo         

Average  of  10  farmers'  families  in  Vt., 
Conn  ,  and  N.  Y 

Average  of  14  mechanics'  f.imilics  in 
Conn.,  N.  J.,  Tenn  ,  and  Ind 

Average  of  i-^  negro  families  in  Ala.:{: 

Average  of  5  I"r,  nch-Canadian  families 
in  Chicag '.  Ill.t    

Average  of  14  professional  men's  families 
in  Conn.  Pi     Ind  ,  and    III         

Averai^e  of  i  I  iniiues  of  Russian  Jews  in 
Chuago.   111$     

Av.  of  \  Italian  families  in  Cliic.igo.  Ill.t. 

Average  of    n  poi-r  families  in  X.  \ .  City 

Av.  of    12  laborers"  families  in  N.  Y.  City 

Average  of  3  Bohemian  familie.i  in  Chi- 
cago, Ill.t         

Aver.ige  of  2  laborers'  families  in  Pitts 
bii:  X    I 'a  .  very  jjoor   . 


Av.Food  Consump  p. Man  p. Day 


U 


19 


19' 
9 


23t 


19 


-    X. 

g 

.-5 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 
Grams. 

e. 

t 

120 

157 

534 

107 

J48 

459 

97 

13'3 

467 

103 

150 

402 

67 

134 

453 

n8 

158 

345 

104 

125 

42^ 

120 

TGI 

406 

103 

III 

39> 

93 

95 

407 

lOI 

n6 

344 

i'5 

101 

360 

80 

95 

3c8 

>  •■« 

„u  . 

l*  .•  li 

-»    4;  U 


4045 
3690 

3515 

3465 
3375 

336.5 

3325 

3095 
3060 

29«5 
2905 

2865 

2485 


*  Average  of  0  studies.  t  Average  of  5  studies. 

X  Food  purchased;  in  the  other  averages  the  food  actually  eaten  is  given. 


204  AGRICULTURE. 

DIAGRAMS    OF    CUTS  OF   MEAT. 


Diagram  I.    A  Good  Steer's  Carcass,  as  Cut  Up  and  Priced  in  the 
Eastern  M.uket. 

A  good  1200-pound  steer  will  dress  about  800  pounds  of 
beef  cut  up  as  above — 715  pounds  salable  cuts,  with  85 
pounds  of  fat,  bone,  and  waste. 

The  diagram  illustrates  what  the  breeder  and  feeder 
should  aim  to  produce  in  the  conformation  of  the  beef-  and 
mutton-producing  animal,  so  that  the  highest  possible  per 
centage  of  the  carcass  will  be  cuts  of  the  high-priced  class. 
thereby  giving  the  best  possible  return  for  food  consumed. 
(McKerrow.) 

The  methods  of  dividing  up  the  carcasses  of  slaughtered 
animals  into  parts,  and  the  terms  used  for  the  "cuts,"  as 
these  parts  are  commonly  called,  vary  considerably  in  dif- 
ferent localities.  The  accompanying  diagrams  will  make 
clear  the  terms  used  in  the  table  Composition  of  Human 
Foods  (pp.  197-199). 


HUMAN^   FOODS. 


205 


II.  Diagram  of  Cuts  of  Veal.* 


III.  Diagram  of  Cuts  of  Mutton.* 


IV    Diagram  of  Cuts  of  Porlc.* 


*  U    S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


206 


AGRICULTURE. 


LIVE  WEIGHT  AND  DRESSED  AV^EIGHT  OF  STEERS 
OF  DIFFERENT  BREEDS  AND  AGES.     (Hfnry,) 


{S7iiithfie/d  S//07V,  1888-95,) 


Live 

No,  of 

Aver, 

Weight 

Breed  and  Age, 

Ani- 
mals, 

Aver, 
Age, 

Daily 
Gains. 

at 
Shiugh- 

Dressed 
Weight. 

lermg. 

Days 

I.bs 

Lbs. 

Per  Ct 

Shortliorn, 

I  year  olds. . 

5 

642 

2. 1 1 

13  =  5 

66.1 

2      ' 

18 

963 

1 .92 

1842 

67.5 

3      ' 

16 

1321 

1 .  72 

2251 

69.4 

Hereford, 

I       * 

16 

663 

1.97 

1308 

65  I 

2      * 

13 

1020 

1.78 

1817 

67.2 

3       ' 

8 

1349 

1  64 

2218 

69,2 

Devon, 

I       ' 

13 

634 

1-75 

1 1 12 

66  0 

2 

19 

1045 

1-51 

'583 

67.7 

16 

131 1 

'    37 

1796 

(■7  3 

Aberdeen  Angus, 

I       ' 

26 

668 

2.04 

1366 

65-4 

2      ' 

21 

1008 

1   74 

1765 

66.7 

3      ' 

2 

1346 

1-59 

2138 

67  4 

Sussex, 

I       ' 

17 

677 

2.15 

1452 

65-4 

2       ' 

18 

989 

1.86 

'837 

68.2 

3      ' 

12 

1285 

i.6r 

2064 

68,0 

Red  Poll, 

2       ' 

12 

1002 

1.64 

1631 

65.7 

3      ' 

6 

1362 

1.49 

2022 

65.8 

Galloway, 

2       ' 

7 

1027 

1,64 

1688 

64 -5 

3      ' 

4 

1344 

T.47 

1969 

64.8 

PROPORTION    OF    BEE  I'    TO    THE    lilVE    AV  EIGHT 
OF    CATTLE.     (McCo.nnell.) 


Live  Weight, 

Pounds 
Avoirdupois, 

Per  Cent  of  Beef. 

Class  I. 

Class  IL 

Class  III 

Heifers  . , 

Under  2520 
"      2520 
1680-2 1 00 
1400-1680 
1400-1680 
1260  -1400 
1260-1400 
1 120- f 260 
1 120-1260 
980-1120 

Under    980 

70.72 

69.71 
66.68 
66  68 
62.65 
62  65 
57  61 
57-6i 
53-56 
53-56 

66. 6g 

66, 6q 
63,65 
63  65 
60.62 
60,62 
54  -  59 
54  59 
50.53 
50-53 

Steers 

Steers 

63.66' 

Heifers 

Steers 

Heifers  

57.62 
57.62 
5' -56 
5'.56 
48  50 
48 .  50 
45-47 

Steers 

Heifers   

Steers 

Heifers  

Heifers 

HUMAX    FOODS. 


20: 


C03IPARATIVE      RESUIjTS     OBTAINED     AVITH 

FATTENING   ANI3IALS.      (Lawes  and  Gilbert.) 

{a)  Per  100  lbs.  live  zveight  per  week. 


Received  by  Animal. 

Results  Produced. 

Total 
Dry 

Food. 

Digestible 
Organic 
Matter. 

Food  Con- 
sumed for 
Heat  and 
Work. 

Dry 

Manure 

Produced. 

Increase 
in  Live 
Weight. 

Oxen 

Sheep 

Piffs 

lbs. 
12.5 
16.0 
27.0 

lbs. 

8.9 

12.3 

22.0 

lbs. 

6.86 

9.06 

12.58 

lbs. 
4-56 
5.10 
4-5^ 

lbs. 

1-^3 
1.76 

6.43 

(^)  /;/  relation  to  food  constimed. 

Food. 

'      Increase  in  Live 
Weight. 

On  100  lbs.  of  Dry 

Per  100 

lbs.  Dry 

Food. 

Per  100  lbs. 
Digested 
Organic 
Matter. 

Consumed 

for  Heat 

and  Work. 

Dry 

Manure 
Produced. 

Dry 

Increase 
Yielded. 

Oxen 

Sheep 

Pigs 

lbs. 

9.0 
II  .0 

23.8 

lbs. 
12.7 

'4-3 

29.2 

lbs. 

54-9 
56.6 
46.6 

lbs. 

36.5 
31-9 
16.7 

lbs. 
6.2 
8.0 

17.6 

LIVE   WEIGHT   AND  GAINS    MADE   BY   SAVINE. 


(Henry  and  Sanborn.) 


Per  100  Lbs.  Live 

No.  of 

Aver. 

Daily 

Feed 

We 

ght. 

Live 

Ani- 

Live 

Feed 

per  Lb. 

Weight. 

mals. 

Weight. 

Eaten. 

Made. 

of 
Gain. 

Feed 
Eaten. 

Gain 
Made. 

Lbs. 

Lbs 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Under  50 

59 

37-7 

2.31 

.701 

3-3° 

6.13 

1.86 

50-100 

91 

75-5 

3-33 

.900 

3-70 

4.41 

1.19 

100-150 

119 

126. 1 

4.29 

1 .029 

4.17 

3  40 

.82 

150-200 

1.38 

176.2 

6.45 

1. 123 

5-75 

3.66 

.64 

200-250 

65 

214. 1 

6.89 

1.287 

5.35 

3.22 

.60 

250-300 

41 

266.4 

7.64 

1-457 

5.24 

2.87 

•55 

300-350 

12 

525 

3330 

6.02 

I  ■  352 

4-45 

1. 81 

.41 

208 


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PART  II.     DAIRYI 


I.    DAIRY   COWS. 

ON  THE  ORIGIN  AND  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE 
DIFFERENT    BREEDS  OF    DAIRY    CATTLE. 

I.  Jersey  Cattle. 

The  origin  of  the  Jersey  cattle,  like  many  of  our  other 
improved  breeds  of  live-stock,  is  not  known  with  cer- 
tainty. The  theory  is  that  they  dcsccr.d  from  cattle 
brought  from  the  Scandinavian  countries  to  Normand;, 
France,  during  the  tenth  century  or  before,  whence  thcv 
were  introduced  into  the  Island  of  Jersey:,  off  the  French 
coast.  The  breed  has  been  kept  pure  on  this'  Fttle  island 
for  a  longer  period  than  any  othjr  English  breeds,  as  a 
result  of  the  enactment  in  1789  of  a  law  forbidding  im- 
portations of  foreign  cattle  into  the,  island.  According  to 
Flint,  Jerseys  were  first  imported  into  this  country  about 
1838,  but  heavy  importations  did  not  begin  until  after  1S50. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  typical  Jersey  cows: 
Head  fine  and  tapering;  cheek  small;  throat  clean;  the 
muzzle  fine  and  encircled  with  a  slight  stri})c;  the  nostril 
high  and  open;  the  horns  smooth,  crumpled,  not  very 
thick  at  the  base,  tapering,  and  tipped  with  black;  ears 
small  and  thin,  deep  orange  color  inside;  eyes  full  and 
placid;  neck  straight  and  fine;  chest  broad  and  deep;  bar- 
rel hooped,  broad  and  deep,  well  ribbed  up;  back  straight 
from  the  withers  to  the  hip,  and  from  the  top  of  the  hip 
to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail;  tail  fine,  ai  right  angles  with 
the  back,  and  hanging  down  to  the  hod  s;  skin  thin,  light 
color,  and  mellow,  covered  with  fine  toft  hair;  foielegs 
short,  straight  and  fine  below  the  knee,  ami  swelling  and 
full  above;   hind  quarters   long  and  well    filled;   hind    legs 


212  DAIRYING. 

short  and  straight  below  the  hocks,  with  bones  rather  fine, 
squarely  placed,  and  not  too  close  together;  hoofs  small; 
udder  full  in  size,  in  line  with  the  belly,  extending  well  up 
behind;  teats  of  medium  size,  squarely  placed  and  wide 
apart,  milk  veins  very  prominent;  color  is  generally 
cream,  dun,  or  yellow,  with  more  or  less  white. 

The  Jerseys  are  generally  considered  a  butter-producing 
breed,  and  justly  so.  The  milk  produced  is  as  a  rule  richer 
in  fat  and  solids  than  that  of  any  other  breed,  but  the 
quantity  yielded,  on  the  other  hand,  is  apt  to  be  lower. 
Milk  from  good  Jersey  cows  often  contains  over  six  per 
cent  of  fat,  the  average  being  about  five  per  cent.  Produc- 
tion of  rich  milk  has  been  the  primary  aim  of  Jersey 
breeders;  in  i8Si  the  secretary  of  the  American  Jersey 
Cattle  Club  wrote:  "  The  sole  office  of  the  Jersey  cow  is 
to  produce  the  largest  possible  amount  of  rich,  highly 
colored  cream  from  a  given  amount  of  food.  Everything 
else  in  connection  with  the  breeding  of  the  race  is,  or 
should  be,  incidental." 

The  highest  yields  of  butter-fat  or  butter,  in  case  of 
Jersey  cows  as  well  as  other  dairy  breeds,  are  not,  how- 
ever, apt  to  come  from  cows  producing  exceptionally  rich 
milk,  but  rather  from  such  producing  an  exceptionally 
large  quantity  of  good  milk;  generally  speaking,  an  ex- 
traordinarily high  fat-content  is  accompanied  by  a  small 
milk  yield. 

Typical  Jerseys  generally  have  a  high-strung,  nervous 
temperament,  and  in  order  to  do  their  best  must  receive 
good  care;  they  cannot  be  abused  as  to  feed  or  treatment 
without  injury;  for  this  reason  they  will  only  prove  a  suc- 
cess in  the  hands  of  intelligent  feeders  who  care  for  and 
take  an  interest  in  their  stock.  The  dairy  type  predomi- 
nates, viz.:  a  wedge-shaped,  deep-chested  body,  with 
good  digestive  organs,  large  full  udders,  well-developed 
milk-veins,  and  a  soft,  mellow  skin.  The  cows  are  gentle 
and  docile,  while  the  bulls  have  the  reputation  of  being 
hard  to  handle,  and  often  ugly  and  dangerous  after  a  couple 
of  years'  service. 

The  maximum  yields  of  milk  and  butter  produced  by 
Jersey    cows  are  given   on  page  240,  the  table  giving  the 


DAIRY    COWS.  '  213 

official  records.  In  the  breed-tests  conducted  by  the  ex- 
periment stations  in  Maine,  New  Jersey,  and  New  York 
(Geneva),  the  Jerseys  have  ranked  among  the  first,  but 
have  seldom  been  the  foremost.  As  the  average  of  all  tests 
of  dairy  breeds  up  to  date,  we  notice  that  the  Jerseys  rank 
after  the  Shorthorns  and  the  Guernseys  in  total  yield  of 
fat  during  a  full  period  of  lactation,  and  after  Guernseys  in 
the  cost  of  producing  one  pound  of  fat;  they  rank  first  as  to 
richness  of  milk  produced.  In  the  English  milking  trials 
conducted  by  the  British  Dairy  Farmers'  Association,  the 
Shorthorn  cows  have  generally  led  the  Jerseys  in  the 
total  quantities  of  fat  produced  per  day,  and  other  breeds 
have  also,  on  the  average,  given  better  results  than  these. 
The  Jerseys  came  out  victorious  in  the  breed-tests  con- 
ducted at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  in  1893;  they 
produced  more  milk,  butter-fat,  butter,  "and  cheese,  and 
gave  a  higher  net  gain  than  either  of  the  two  other  breeds 
competing  (Guernsey  and  Shorthorn);  the  Guernseys,  on 
the  other  hand,  led  as  regards  the  cost  of  the  food  con- 
sumed. Also  in  the  Dairy  Cow  Demonstration  at  the  La.  Pur- 
chase Exposition  in  St.  Louis,  in  1904,  the  Jersey  cows  produced 
more  butter-fat,  on  the  average,  than  either  of  the  other  com- 
peting breeds,  and  at  a  lower  feed  cost  per  pound  (see  p.  239). 
The  champion  Jersey  cow  in  this  demonstiation,  Loretta  D., 
produced  in  120  days  5802.7  lbs.  milk;  average  per  cent  of  fat, 
4.82;  280.16  lbs.  butter- fat,  equivalent  to  330  lbs.  of  butter, 
and  an  average  daily  production  of  2.334  lbs.  butter- fat. 

The  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club  was  organized  in  July,  1868; 
the  Herd  Register  of  the  club,  the  first  volume  of  which  was 
published  in  1871,  has  been  issued  in  seventy-two  volumes  up 
to  date,  including  in  all  92,000  bulls  and  244,000  cows.  Register 
of  Merit  of  Jersey  Cattle  gives  records  of  all  Jersey  cows  and 
bulls  entered  in  the  Register  of  Merit,  which  was  established 
by  the  club  in  1903;  the  latest  volume  published  is  Vol.  Ill, 
containing  entries  to  Nov.  10,  1913. 

•  The  present  Secretary  of  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club 
is  R.  M.  Gow,  No.  324  W.  23d  St.,  New  York  City. 


214:  DAIRY  i:tfG. 


II.  Guernsey  Cattle. 

By  Prof.  W.  H.  Caldwell,  Peterboro,  N.  H,,  Sec'y  Am.  Guernsey  Cattle 

Club. 

The  Guernsey  breed  takes  its  name  from  the  Island  of 
Guernsey,  one  of  the  Channel,  or  sometimes  termed  Alder- 
ney,  Islands.  The  origin  of  the  Channel  Island  cattle, 
while  somewhat  involved  in  controversy,  is  generally  be- 
lieved to  have  come  from  stock  originally  from  the  French 
provinces  of  Normandy  and  Brittany,  and  that  the  founda- 
tion for  the  Guernseys  was  laid  by  crossing  the  Normandy 
bull  on  the  Brittany  cow.  It  is  very  interesting  to  turn  to 
the  Island  of  Guernsey,  cut  o"ff  as  it  is  from  the  main  land 
by  the  little  strip  of  sea,  and  protected  on  all  sides  by 
a  rough,  rocky  coast,  and  note  the  characteristics  which 
we  find  there  that  have  played  so  important  a  part  in 
moulding  the  character  of  the  Guernsey  of  to-day.  There 
the  shrewd,  careful,  sturdy  people  have  labored  many  years 
to  produce  a  cow  that  should  excel  in  butter  production. 
Their  labors  have  been  rewarded  in  the  Guernsey,  which  is 
noted  the  world  over  for  producing  butter  of  the  highest 
natural  color  and  with  the  least  outlay  for  cost  of  feed. 
Fate  might  have  been  different  with  these  people  but  for 
their  insular  situation,  pride  of  self-government,  habits  and 
customs,  which  led  them  to  zealously  fight  invasions,  and 
even  as  early  as  1789  to  take  measures  against  the  fraud- 
ulent importation  of  stock.  In  1826  came  more  stringent 
laws,  that  prohibited  importation  to  the  island  except  for 
slaughter.  It  thus  isolated  the  islanders  and  their  cows 
from  the  cattle  kingdom. 

The  striking  appearance  of  the  Guernsey  is  at  once  seen 
in  its  rich  yellow  skin,  which  has  always  been  noted  as  the 
characteristic  of  a  good  butter-cow.  In  appearance  they  are 
rangy,  deep,  business-looking  animals,  with  a  particularly 
quiet,  gentle,  tractable  temperament,  free  from  nervous- 
ness. The  prevailing  color  is  a  delicate  shade  of  fawn  with 
white  markings,  and  cream-colored  nose;  and  their  most 
remarkable  characteristic  of   richness   is    apparent    in   the 


DAIRY   COWS.  215 

golden  color  around  the  eye,  on  ihe  udder  and  teats  at 
base  of  horn,  and  at  end  of  the  bone  of  tail. 

Until  recently  Guernseys  in  America  were  kept  chieflv 
for  family  use.  They  were  introduced  into  private  dairies 
around  Philadelphia  as  early  as  1840,  and  since  that  time  no 
other  breeds  have  been  permitted  to  replace  them.  The 
gentlemen  who  first  introduced  Guernseys  had  no  motive 
to  advertise  them.  They  esteemed  their  golden-colored 
products  so  highly  that  they  were  kept  for  the  supplying 
of  families  with  the  best  milk  and  butter  that  could  be  pro- 
duced. About  1865  a  few  Guernseys  were  introduced  by 
the  importers,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  some  of  our 
herds  of  to-day.  A  few  years  later  the  Massachusetts  So- 
ciety for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture,  realizing  the  great 
promise  of  the  breed,  imported  some  and  distributed  them 
at  a  public  sale  to  dairymen  in  the  State.  A  few  years 
later  a  number  of  Connecticut  farmers  joined  together  and 
sent  a  man  to  the  island  to  bring  over  a  lot.  It  soon  became 
obvious  to  these  gentlemen  that  some  organization  was 
necessary  to  preserve  the  purity  of  these  cattle  and  to 
encourage  their  recognition.  Accordingly  on  February  7. 
1877,  the  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club  was  organized  in 
New  York  City.  At  that  time  there  were  about  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  pure-bred  Guernseys  in  the  country,  whose 
pedigrees  could  be  traced  without  question  to  importation 
^rom  the  island.  At  present  there  are  about  60,000  animals 
in  the  Register.  In  the  last  few  years — in  fact  since  the 
World's  Fair  Dairy  tests  in  1893,  and  the  work  at  the  New 
York  and  New  Jersey  Experiment  Stations — great  interest 
has  been  taken  in  the  Guernseys.  More  entries  and  trans- 
fers have  been  recorded,  and  more  members  have  joined 
the  Club  than  at  any  similar  period  in  its  history.  The 
public  are  just  realizing  the  straightforward  work  that 
has  been  quietly  done  for  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  and 
■  find  in  a  study  of  it  that  there  are  many  valuable  records  to 
the  credit  of  the  breed.  These  are  all  the  more  valuable  as 
the  Guernsey  has  not  been  forced  for  high  records,  but 
have  honestly  won  their  way. 

The  best  records  reported  of  Guernseys  are  those  of  Lilv 


216  DAIRYING. 

of  Alexandre,  No.  1059,  and  Imp.  Bretonne,  No.  3660.  Lily 
of  Alexandre  gave  12,8555  pounds  of  milk  in  one  year  ;  and 
two  months  before  calving  tested  7.2  per  cent  of  butter-fat. 
Bretonne  gave  in  the  year  ending  October  20,  1894,  ii,2ig 
pounds  of  milk.  Her  milk  was  tested  carefully  once  a 
month  by  taking  a  composite  sample  of  eight  consecutive 
milkings.  The  lowest  test  was  5.2  per  cent  and  highest 
6.1  per  cent  butter-fat.  Her  milk  yielded  6o2yVtt  pounds 
of  butter-fat,  or  equivalent  to  753i^fy  pounds  of  butter  con- 
taining So  oer  cent  butter-fat.  She  is  a  large,  well-built 
■  ow,  and  weighed  at  the  close  of  her  year's  work  1150 
pounds.  In  addition  the  cow  Fantine  2d,  No.  3730,  owned 
by  Mr.  Chas.  Solveson  of  Nashotah,  Wis.,  gave  in  one  year, 
besides  dropping  a  fine  calf  and  being  dry  four  weeks,  9748 
pounds  of  milk,  the  lowest  test  being  5  and  the  highest 
5.6  per  cent  butter-fat,  which  would  yield  a  year's  record 
of  516.6  pounds  butter  fat  or  602  pounds  of  butter.  Mr. 
Ezra  Michener  of  Carversville,  Pa.,  owns  the  cow  King's 
Myra,  No.  5339,  who  has  just  completed  the  year's  test 
under  the  direction  of  the  Guernsey  Breeders'  Association 
ajid  received  their  first  prize.  She  is  four  years  old,  and 
gave  in  the  year  861 1  pounds  of  milk,  which  yielded  539 
pounds  of  butter.  Nearly  a  hundred  cows  have  been  re- 
ported that  have  made  a  record  of  14  pounds  or  over  of 
butter  a  week,  and  several  that  have  made  exceedingly  fine 
single-day  tests,  as  one  cow,  Pretty  Dairymaid  2d  of 
Guernsey,  No.  6366,  who  in  an  oflScial  test  gave  in  three 
consecutive  days  61  pounds  2  ounces,  62  pounds  12  ounces, 
and  52  pounds  and  9  ounces  of  milk,  a  total  of  176  pounds 
7  ounces. 

Their  ability  to  produce  butter-fat  and  butter  at  a  low 
cost  demands  the  careful  attention  of  the  dairymen.  At 
the  New  York  Experiment  Station  several  of  the  dairy 
breeds  are  being  carefully  tested.  The  annual  report  of  the 
director,  which  was  recently  issued,  gives  the  result  of  the 
first  two  periods  of  lactation.  In  both  instances  the  Guern- 
seys produced  butter-fat  at  the  least  cost,  as  the  following 
shows : 


DAIRY    COWS. 


217 


Their  ability  to  produce  butter-fat  and  butter  at  a  low  cost  de- 
mands the  careful  attention  of  the  dairyman.  At  the  N.  Y.  (Geneva) 
and  N.  J.  Exp.  Stations  several  of  the  dairy  breeds  have  been 
carefully  tested.  In  both  instances  the  Guernseys  produced  but- 
ter-fat at  the  least  cost,  and  the  same  result  was  obtained  in  the 
World's  Fair  test,  1S91,  as  the  following  shows: 

COST    OF    BUTTER-FAT    PER    POUND,    CENTS. 


Breed. 


Guernsey 

Jersey 

Ayrshire. 

Shorthorn 

Holstein     

Devon     

Am.  Holderness. . . 


N.  Y.  (Geneva.) 


Lactation  Period. 


First. 


18.4 
20.0 
24-3 

26.3 
23.0 
26.3 


Second. 


15.6 
18. 5 
24.8 

26.4 
19.0 
22.8 


New  Jersey 

* 

15 

3 

17 

9 

20 

.6 

20 

8 

22 

4 

World's 
Fair.* 


*  Cost  of  butter  per  pound. 

This  shows  the  Guernseys  to  be  the  most  economical 
producers  of  butter  ;  and  such  golden-yellow  butter,  too  ! 

The  American  dairyman,  in  his  endeavor  to  improve  his 
own  herd  and  collectively  to  improve  the  herds  of  his  sec- 
tion, naturally  takes  a  great  deal  of  interest  in  the  grade 
dairy  cow.  In  the  progressive  dairy  sections  the  influence 
which  pure  bred  bulls  exert  is  readily  acknowledged. 
They  intensify  the  good  qualities  of  the  breed  to  which 
they  belong,  and  make  such  a  section  a  desirable  place  for 
the  seeking  of  good  family  and  profitable  dairj'  cows.  The 
value  of  the  Guernsey  bull  in  effecting  this  improvement 
has  been  well  understood  for  many  years,  and  especially  is 
it  realized  to-day  in  the  desire  to  secure  in  the  dairy  cattle 
of  America  greater  physical  strength  and  more  profitable 
butter  production  without  reducing  size  or  sacrificing  rich- 
ness of  milk  production.  Mr.  Lewis  F.  Allen,  in  his  writings 
several  years  ago,  spoke  especially  of  his  experience  with 
the  Guernsey  for  grading.  He  said  his  experience  was 
good,  large-sized  animals,  free  and  persistent  milkers,  and 


218  DAIRYTN"G. 

the  making  of  the  first  quality  butter  for  private  family  oi 
hotel  use.  He  believed  that  on  a  whole  the  Guernseys 
were  more  satisfactory  for  the  dairy  than  any  which  in  his 
forty  years'  experience  he  had  ever  had.  His  cows  had 
good  square  udders,  well'  set  front  and  behind,  teats  of 
good  size  and  easy  to  grasp. 

The  Herd  Register  is  published  by  the  American  Guern- 
sey Cattle  Club,  whose  headquarters  are  at  Peterboro,  N. 
H.  The  breeders  of  Guernseys  have  always  been  harmoni- 
ous in  letting  their  favorites  win  their  way  by  their  own 
straightforward  efforts  in  the  dairy.  By  addressing  the 
Secretary  of  the  Club  at  Peterboro,  N.  H.,  further  informa- 
tion will  cheerfully  be  furnished. 

HI.     Holstein-Friesian  Cattle. 

By  Malcolm  H.  Gardner,  Delavan,  Wis.,  Supt.  Advanced  Registry 
Holstein-Friesian  Association  of  America. 

The  cattle  known  in  America  as  Holstcin-Fricsians  belong  to 
the  shorthorn,  low-land  race,  native  to  the  fertile  lands  of  Europe 
bordering  on  the  North  Sea;  of  which  race,  from  the  dairy  stand- 
point, the  Holstein-Friesian  family  is  the  most  highly  developed. 
These  cattle  might  have  been  better  named  PYicsian,  since 
Friesland,  and  the  neighboring  provinces  of  Holland,  is  the 
central  home  from  which  this  breed  of  cattle  has  been  so  widely 
disseminated  over  the  (Ad  World,  and  from  which  some  10,000 
head  of  foundation  stock  has  been  brought  to  America.  The 
Friesian  people  are  among  the  most  conservative  of  the  Ger- 
manic race;  still  holding  to  and  speaking  among  themselves  the 
old  Friesian  language,  although  also  able  to  speak  Dutch,  the 
official  language  of  Holland.  They  have  been  equally  conserva- 
tive in  holding  to  their  ancient  industry  of  cattle-rearing,  an 
occupation  -for  which  their  low-lying  lands  are  especially  fitted; 
and  as  Tacitus  speaks  of  them  nearly  1900  years  ago  as  cattle 
breeders,  paying  a  tribute  in  cattle  and  hides  to  the  Roman 
Empire,  so  we  find  them  to-day  making  dairy  husbandry  their 
main  industry.  Holding  mainly  to  one  occupation  down  through 
the  centuries,  and  passing  the  business  from  father  to  son,  it 
would  be  strange  indeed  if  their  breed  of  cattle  did  not  reach  a 
very  high  degree  of  development;  so  it  is  in  no  way  surprising 
that  we  should  find  these  Friesian  dairymen  possessed  of  a  breed 


DAIRY    COWS.  219 

of  cattle  which,  as  an  all-around  dairy  breed,  is  superior  to  any 
other  breed  known. 

While  the  Holstein-Friesians  are  essentially  a  dairy  breed 
and  are  so  regarded  in  America,  yet  as  an  all-around  dairy  breed 
the  matter  of  beef  and  veal  must  not  be  lost  sight  of,  and  in 
Holland  these»are  very  important  points.  There  few  cattle  are 
allowed  to  pass  their  seventh  year;  but  before  they  pass  out  of 
their  prime  they  are  fattened  and  sold  as  beef.  Prof.  I.  P. 
Roberts  in  speaking  of  Holstein-Friesian  beef  said:  "I  ate  it 
for  three  weeks,  and  the  English  beef  for  two;  and  while  not  so 
fat  as  the  short-horn,  it  was  to  my  taste  superior."  The  breed 
reaches  full  growth  and  maturity  at  about  five  years  of  age;  reach- 
ing full  height  at  between  two  and  one-half  and  three  years  of 
age,  and  each  year  for  the  two  following  years  adding  about  one 
and  three-fourth  inches  in  length,  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in 
width  of  hips,  and  two  inches  in  girth  of  chest.  Mr.  S.  Hoxie, 
former  Supt.  of  H.-F.  Advanced  Registry,  states  that  the  average 
measurements  of  cows  upwards  of  five  years  of  age*  received  to 
entry  in  the  fourth  volume  of  the  Advanced  Register  were  as 
follows:  "Height  at  shoulders,  51.8  inches;  height  at  hips,  53 
inches;  length  of  body,  64.9  inches;  length  of  rump,  21.4  inches; 
width  of  hips,  21.9  inches;  width  at  thurl,  19.6  inches;  girth  at 
smallest  circumference  of  chest,  75.6  inches."  The  average 
weight  of  these  cows  was  1262  lbs.,  and  the  average  measure- 
ments are  those  of  what  might  be  deemed  a  typical  animal  of 
what  is  technically  knowti  as  the  milk-and-flesh  form  of  the 
breed,  the  form  most  popular  in  America. 

The  first  association  of  breeders  of  these  cattle  in  this  country 
was  fonned  in  1871,  the  first  herd-book  being  published  the 
following  year.  The  present  Holstein-Friesian  Association  was 
formed  in  1885  by  the  union  of  two  earlier  associations,  and  is 
now  the  largest  association  of  breeders  of  pure-bred  dairy  cattle 
in  America.  How  many  H.-F.  cattle  there  are  now  living  is 
unknown;  but  since  the  juncture  of  the  two  old  associations  in 
.18S5,  over  180,000  females  and  96,000  males  have  been  recorded. 
The  H.-F.  Advanced  Rcgi:ler,  based  for  entry  upon  individual 
merit,  was  established  in  1SS5;  2,^  volumes  having  been  pub- 
lished, containing  entries  of  over  18,500  cows  and  1300  bulls.  The 
age  of  any  female  is  computed  as  that  at  the  time  of  last  calving 


220  DAIRYING. 

or  aborting,  and  the  requirements  for  entry  vary  with  the  age, 
being  not  less  than  7.2  lbs.  butter-fat  in  seven  consecutive  days 
for  a  heifer  calving  at  just  two  years  of  age  or  younger,  and  in- 
creasing proportionately  to  not  less  than  12  lbs.  butter-fat  for  a 
cow  calving  at  five  years  old  or  older;  there  being  no  increased 
requirements  for  increased  age  after  a  cow  reaches  the  age  of 
five  years.  Only  bulls  having  four  or  more  daughters  which 
have  been  entered  in  the  Advanced  Register  on  official  records 
of  butter-fat  are  accepted  for  entry. 

The  rules  for  the  entry  of  cows  in  the  H.-F.  Advanced  Register 
are  very  stringent,  being  designed  to  place  every  H.-F.  record 
beyond  even  a  shadow  of  doubt.  Every  milking  during  the 
period  of  test  is  watched,  weighed,  sampled,  and  tested  by  a 
representative  of  a  State  Agricultural  College;  and  thus,  because 
of  resulting  expense,  the  bulk  of  its  records  are  for  short  periods, 
mainly  for  one  week.  It  will  be  readily  admitted  that  18  lbs. 
of  butter-fat  will  make  21  lbs.  of  the  best  of  butter,  or  an  average 
of  three  pounds  butter  per  day  when  18  lbs.  of  fat  is  produced 
in  seven  consecutive  days,  and  that  very  few  cows  other  than 
Holstein-Friesian  have  ever  under  strict  rules  produced  such  an 
amount.  The  records  of  the  H.-F.  Advanced  Register  show  that 
224  H.-F.  cows  have  produced  officially  in  excess  of  18  lbs. 
butter-fat;  of  which  82  cows  have  produced  between  18  and 
19  lbs.;  64  cows,  between  19  and  20  lbs.;  46  cows,  between  20 
and  21  lbs.;  15  cows,  between  21  and  22  lbs.;  8  cows,  between 
22  and  23  lbs.;  6  cows,  between  23  and  24  lbs.;  i  cow,  between 
24  and  25  lbs.;  i  cow,  between  25  and  26  lbs.;  and  i  cow, 
over  27  lbs.  It  must  be  remembered  that  while  many  of  these 
records  were  made  by  cows  much  under  five  years  of  age,  there 
were  a  large  number  of  records  made  by  two  and  three-year-old 
heifers,  which  were,  considering  age,  proportionately  as  large, 
yet  fell  short  of  the  i8-lb.  limit  required  for  this  list. 

As  to  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  average  H.-F.  milk,  1545  cows  and 
heifers  of  all  ages  entered  in  the  17th  volume  of  the  H.-F. 
Advanced  Register,  of  which  more  than  one-half  were  heifers, 
produced  in  seven  consecutive  days  an  average  of  376.7  lbs. 
milk,  containing  12.75  lbs.  butter-fat,  showing  an  average  of 
3.39  per  cent  fat.  There  were  71  cows  and  heifers  producing 
over  18  lbs.  butter-fat;  and  these  cows  averaged  540.9  lbs.  milk, 


DAIRY    COWS.  ^21 

containing  19.758  lbs.  butter-fat,  showing  an  average  of  3.65 
per  cent  fat.  Eighty-three  H.-F.  cows  and  heifers  have  made 
30-day  ollicial  records  exceeding  72  lbs.  butter-fat,  of  which 
24  made  from  72  to  76  lbs.;  27,  from  76  to  80  lbs.;  18,  from 
80  to  85  lbs.;  6,  from  85  to  90  lbs.;  6,  from  90  to  100  lbs.;  i, 
from  100  to  no  lbs.;  and  i  made  over  no  lbs.  of  butter-fat. 

A  few  H.-F.  cows  have  been  officially  tested  for  longer  periods; 
and  one  cow  produced  in  100  days  over  284  lbs.  fat,  while  a 
heifer  under  three  years  of  age  produced  over  227  lbs.  in  the 
same  length  of  time.  At  the  World's  Fair  at  St.  Louis,  where 
three  Missouri  H.-F.  breeders  pitted  their  individual  herd  against 
the  pick  of  the  Jersey  world,  one  H.-F.  cow  produced  over  282 
lbs.  fat  in  120  days,  surpassing  the  foremost  Jersey  by  over  two 
pounds;  and  since  then  a  H.-F.  cow-  has  produced  officially 
over  316  lbs.  fat  in  the  same  time.  One  H.-F.  cow  has  produced 
over  453  lbs.  fat  in  182 1  days,  while  another  produced  over  721 
lbs.  fat  in  one  year.  This  last  w^as  owned  by  the  Michigan  Agl. 
College.  Prof.  Oscar  Erf,  Kansas  Agl.  College,  writes  that  one  of 
their  H.-F.  cows  has  produced  nearly  16,000  lbs.  of  milk  in  one 
year,  testing  from  3.2  to  3.7  per  cent  fat,  and  that  at  the  end  of  the 
year  she  was  still  giving  from  25  to  30  lbs.  milk  per  day;  while 
Prof.  A.  L.  Haecker,  Nebraska  Agl.  College,  states  that  a  heifer 
calving  at  just  past  three  years  has  given  in  39  weeks  15,063.9 
lbs.  milk,  containing  492.05  lbs.  butter  fat,  and  that  she  was  still 
giving  45  lbs.  milk  per  day,  with  13  weeks  before  her  in  which 
to  complete  the  year's  record.  A  heifer,  calving  at  just  past 
three  years  of  age,  in  semi-official  test  under  the  rules  of  the 
Wisconsin  Exp.  Station,  produced  in  one  year,  13,213.6  lbs. 
milk  containing  584.080  lbs.  butter-fat.  Many  H.-F.  cows  have 
made  very  large  private  records;  but  it  is  not  the  practice  of  the 
H.-F.  Association  to  report  private  records. 

It  has  been  asserted  by  some  persons  illy  posted  as  to  the  facts, 
that  while  H.-F.  cows  did  yield  large  quantities  of  milk,  the  milk 
was  below  standard  in  cjuality.  Ten  gallons  of  milk  per  day,  by 
weight  84  lbs.,  might  be  considered  more  than  any  cow  could 
ever  produce;  yet  under  the  strictest  official  test  40  H.-F.  cows 
have  yielded  in  excess  of  588  lbs.  in  a  period  of  seven  consecutive 
days.  This  herd  of  40  cows,  of  which  some  were  not  of  full  age, 
produced  in  a  period  of  seven  consecutive  days  25,032.2  lbs. 
milk,  containing  821.497  lbs.  butter-fat;  thus  showing  an  average 


222  DAIRYIl^G. 

of  3.28  per  cent  fat.  The  average  for  each  cow  was  625.8  lbs. 
milk,  containing  20.537  lbs.  butter-fat,  equivalent  to  89.4  lbs.  milk 
(over  10^  gallons)  per  day,  and  nearly  24  lbs.  of  commercial 
butter  per  week.  After  such  proofs  of  large  production  of  both 
butter-fat  and  of  milk,  and  showing  that  even  in  the  largest 
yields  of  almost  incredible  amounts  of  milk  the  content  of  butter- 
fat  was  ID  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  usual  legal  requirements, 
further  comment  would  seem  unnecessary. 

Owners  and  breeders  of  Holstein-Friesian  cattle  base  their 
claims  for  the  superiority  of  this  breed  over  all  other  dairy  breeds 
mainly  on  the  following  points:  First,  that  the  Holstein-Friesian 
is  a  large,  strong,  vigorous  cow,  full  of  energy  and  abounding 
in  vitality;  second,  that  her  physical  organization  and  digestive 
capacity  are  such  that  she  is  able  to  turn  to  the  best  advantage  the 
roughage  of  the  farm,  converting  the  same  into  merchantable 
products;  third,  that  she  yields  large  quantities  of  most  excellent 
milk,  fit  for  any  and  all  uses,  and  especially  well  fitted  for  shipping 
purposes;  fourth,  that  heredity  is  so  firmly  established  through 
her  long  lineage  that  she  is  able  to  perpetuate  herself  through  the 
production  of  strong,  healthy  calves;  and  fifth,  that,  when  for 
any  reason  her  usefulness  in  the  dairy  is  at  an  end,  she  fattens 
readily  and  makes  excellent  beef. 

IV.  Ayrshires. 

By  C.  M.  WiNSLOW,  Brandon,  Vt.,  Secretary  Association  of  Ayrshire 

Breeders. 

The  original  home  of  the  Ayrshire  cow  is  in  Scotland,  in  the 
county  of  Ayr.  This  county  has  always  been  noted  for  its 
dairy  industry  and  the  thrift  of  its  inhabitants.  The  soil  is  strong, 
giving  good  pasturing  and  abundant  crops,  the  climate  is  rough, 
and  people  and  cattle  hardy. 

The  Ayrshires  began  to  attract  the  attention  of  dair\Tnen 
in  other  parts  of  the  world  some  sixty  years  ago,  and  there  was 
an  importation  made  into  Canada  and  the  New  England  States, 
where  they  are  bred  in  considerable  numbers  and  highly  prized. 
They  have  been  sent  South,  and  are  said  to  endure  the  heat  better 
than  any  other  breed.  They  also  are  said  to  stand  the  cold  of 
Canada  better  than  any  other  dairy  breed. 

The  Ayrshire  cow  is  of  medium  size,  weighing  about  one 
thousand   pounds,   of   blocky   build,   low  on   legs,   and  usually 


DAIRY   COWS.  223 

spotted  in  color,  being  red  and  white  as  a  rule,  though  sometimes 
nearly  red  or  nearly  white.  They  are  hardy  and  healthy,  endur- 
ing changes  of  heat  and  cold  with  little  discomfort,  and  quickly 
adapt  themselves  to  surrounding  conditions.  They  perhaps 
show  to  the  best  advantage  where  the  food-supply  is  limited 
and  they  are  compelled  to  hunt  for  a  full  supply. 

It  is  claimed  for  the  cows  of  this  breed  that  they  will  give  the 
largest  return  of  dairy  product  for  food  consumed  of  any  of  the  dairy 
breeds.  There  has  never  been  much  said  or  done  by  the  owners 
of  A}Tshires  to  bring  their  merits  to  the  attention  of  the  public. 
They  are  a  popular  cow  for  the  milkman,  because  they  are  econom- 
ical producers  and  give  milk  of  good  quality  that  satisfies  the  trade. 

High-grade  Ayrshire  cows  always  command  the  highest  fancy 
price  in  Brighton,  to  go  into  the  stables  of  milk  producers.  It 
is  said  by  the  milk  inspectors  of  Boston  that  they  have  no  trouble 
with  the  milk  from  Ayrshire  herds,  it  being  up  to  the  13  per  cent 
total  solids  required  by  Massachusetts  law. 

The  average  yield  of  Ayrshire  cows  is  a  little  over  6000  lbs. 
of  milk  in  a  year,  on  ordinary  dairy  food  and  care,  but  there 
are  a  large  number  of  individual  cows  with  authenticated  records 
all  the  way  from  7000  lbs.  to  over  12,000  lbs.  of  milk  in  a  year. 

It  is  only  within  a  very  few  years  that  the  Ayrshire  Breeders' 
Association  instituted  a  system  of  ofhcial  tests,  and  only  a  few 
of  the  breeders  have  entered  their  herds,  consequently  we  have 
the  records  of  a  comparatively  small  number  of  cows,  but  enough 
to  show  that  the  Ayrshire  cow  is  by  nature  a  wonderful  dairv 
cow  both  in  milk  and  butter  production,  and  that  it  would  be  an 
easy  matter  to  produce  families  of  phenomenal  cows  adapted  to 
the  production  of  either  butter  or  milk. 

The  association  has  confined  itself  chiefly  to  the  yearlv  tests, 
believing  that  it  is  the  long  period  that  shows  the  staying  quality 
of  the  breed  and  the  true  value  of  a  dairy  cow. 

We  have  in  the  ordinary  work  of  the  dairy  found  a  number  of 
cows  that  gave  from  fourteen  to  nineteen  pounds  of  butter  in 
seven  days,  and  from  sixty  to  nearly  too  pounds  in  the  month. 

We  have  compiled  from  the  oflicial  files  of  the  association  tests 
the  following  yields  from  individual  cows: 

Milk. — 78  cows  gave  over  8000  lbs.  of  milk  in  a  year;   51  cows 
gave  over  8500  lbs.  of  milk  in  a  year;  43  cows  gave  over  gooo  lbs.  " 
of  milk  in  a  yearj   17  cows  gave  over  9500  ^bs.  of  milk  in  a  year; 


224  DAIRYING. 

14  cows  gave  over  10,000  lbs.  of  milk  in  a  year;  7  cows  gave  over 
10,500  lbs.  of  milk  in  one  year;  6  cows  gave  over  11,000  lbs.  of 
milk  in  one  year;  4  cows  gave  over  11,500  lbs.  of  milk  in  one 
year;  2  cows  gave  over  12,000  lbs.  of  milk  in  one  year;  i  cow 
gave  over  12,500  lbs.  of  milk  in  one  year. 

Butter. — 181  cows  gave  over  300  lbs.  of  butter  each  in  one  year; 
87  cows  gave  over  350  lbs.  of  butter  each  in  one  year;  33  cows 
gave  over  400  lbs.  of  butter  each  in  one  year;  13  cows  gave  over 
450  lbs.  of  butter  each  in  one  year;  5  cows  gave  over  500  lbs.  of 
butter  each  in  one  year;  i  cow  gave  nearly  550  lbs.  of  butter  in 
one  year;  i  cow  has  for  the  last  five  consecutive  years  dropped 
five  calves  and  given  an  official  record  of  52,000  lbs.  milk  and 
2130  lbs.  butter. 

The  Ayrshire,  being  a  dairy  cow,  has  never  been  claiined  for 
beef  or  even  for  a  general-purpose  cow,  but  her  easy  keeping- 
qualities  and  hardy  disposition  cause  her  to  lay  on  flesh  rapidly 
when  dry,  and  she  will  probably  return  to  her  owner  in  beef 
the  full  cost  of  raising  her.  Farmers  who  fatten  calves  for  veal 
tell  me  the  calves  are  small  when  born,  but  grow  rapidly,  so 
that  when  of  age  to  sell  they  are  large  and  heavy  for  their  age  and 
are  good  handlers. 

V.  Shorthorns  as  Dairy  Cows. 

By  the  late  J.  H.  Pickrell,  Springfield,  111.,  Secretary  American  Short- 
horn Breeders'  Association. 

Away  back  in  the  early  history  of  this  country,  there 
were  occasionally  cows  imported  from  England.  Buffalo 
and  wild  game  were  abundant  for  meat,  but  milk,  butter, 
and  cheese  did  not  come  that  way. 

As  creatures  of  circumstances,  cows  were  in  demand. 
Soon  after  the  Revolutionary  War,  cattle  that  were  pure- 
bred Shorthorns  were  imported  into  Virginia,  and  after- 
wards, in  1797,  found  their  way  into  Kentucky.  The  cows 
were  said  to  be  great  milkers,  and  are  reported  to  have 
given  as  much  as  32  quarts  of  milk  per  day,  and  were 
called  by  the  natives  "  the  milk  breed."  Later  importa- 
tions with  more  particular  reference  to  their  beef  qualities 
were  made,  but,  in  spite  of  all  that  had  been  fed  into  them 
with  that  end  in  view,  many  of  the  cows  developed  into 
remarkably  heavy  milkers,  and  were  very  noted  for  their 
large  yield  of  a  good  quality  of  milk. 

The  late  L.  F.  Allen,  in  his  history  of  "American  Cat- 
tle," published  in  1868,  says:  "We  have  numerous  well- 


DAIRY   COWS.  225 

authenticated  instances  of  their  (Shorthorns)  giving  six, 
seven,  eight,  and  even  nine  gallons  a  day,  on  grass  alone, 
in  the  height  of  their  season,  and  yielding  fourteen  to 
eighteen  pounds  of  butter  per  week,  and  of  holding  out  in 
their  milk  in  proportionate  quantity,  as  well  as  other 
breeds  of  cows,  through  the  year.  Cows  so  much  larger 
in  size  than  other  kinds  should  be  expected  to  give  more 
than  smaller  ones  that  consume  less  food,  and  without  as- 
serting that  they  do  give  more,  in  proportion  to  their  size, 
it  is  claimed  that  when  educated  and  used  for  the  dairy 
chiefly,  they  give  quite  as  much  as  others.  That  the  in- 
herent quality  of  abundant  milking  exists  in  the  Short- 
horns, no  intelligent  breeders  of  them  need  doubt.  Our 
own  observation  in  more  than  thirty  years'  experience 
with  hundreds  of  them,  first  and  last,  under  our  own  eyes, 
is  to  ourself  evidence  of  the  fact,  both  in  thoroughbreds 
and  grades." 

The  Columbian  dairy  tests,  though  made  under  un- 
favorable circumstances,  proved  the  milking  qualities  of 
Shorthorns.  I  say  unfavorable,  because  the  matter  was 
not  taken  hold  of  soon  enough  by  the  American  Short- 
horn Breeders'  Association,  under  vvhose  auspices  the  ex- 
hibit was  made,  to  select  the  best  cows  in  every  instance 
so  as  to  have  them  bred  to  produce  and  have  them  at  their 
highest  flow  of  milk  at  the  proper  time.  As  a  conse- 
quence, cows  had  to  be  picked  up  that  had  produced  at 
hap-hazard,  and  were  not  in  every  instance  the  best  that 
might  have  been  used,  if  selections  had  been  made  in  sea- 
son to  have  them  bred  so  as  to  have  them  produce  just  prior 
to  the  tests.  But  with  all  these  disadvantages,  the  two 
strictly  acknowledged  dairy  breeds — bred  for  that  purpose 
almost  exclusively — which  were  selected  with  the  greatest 
care,  so  much  so  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  could  be 
duplicated,  had  but  little  the  advantage  of  the  Shorthorns  in 
the  general  "  round-up,"  as  a  few  comparisons  will  prove. 

In  test  No.  i  (cheese),  with  25  cows  of  each  breed,  the 
score  stood  as  follows: 

Jerseys go6.  i  points 

Shorthorns 905.5        " 

Guernseys •_!:  v- 871.9       " 


226  DAIRYIKG. 

In  the  score  for  perfection  of  lOO  points  flavor  was  counted 
55  points. 

Shorthorns  headed  the  list  by  taking  504.3  points. 

Jerseys 497-8       " 

Guernseys 489.4       " 

The  cost  of  production  was  : 

Shorthorns $99.36 

Jerseys 98.14 

Guernseys 76.25 

The  champion  cheese  cow  of  the  Jerseys  netted $6,97 

"  "          "     "     "    Shorthorns   netted..       6.27 

"  "  "          "     "     "    Guernseys         "      ..        5.27 

In  the  second  test,  90  days,  for  butter,  loss  and  gain  in 
live  Vvcight,  where  maintenance  was  counted  against  the 
cows,  the  net  gain  was  for 

Jerseys  (25  cows) $1,323.81 

Guernseys  (25  cows) 997-63 

Shorthorns  (24  cows). 9IT-I3 

To  produce  this  result  it  cost  the 

Jerseys  (25) 8587-87 

Shorthorns  (24) 506.50 

Guernseys  (251 4S7.25 

The  champion 

Shorthorn  cow  (Nora)  produced  3679.8  lbs.  of  milk. 
Jersey  (Brown  Bessie)         "  3634       "     "       " 

Guernsey  (Materna)  "  3548.8    "     " 

When  reduced  to  gain  in  the  products  over  cost  of  pro- 
duction, the  account  stood  as  follows  : 

Jersey  cow $73.22 

Guernsey  cow 57-82 

Shorthorn  cow 52.63 

Again,  in  tests  2,  3,  and  4  iGuernseys  were  not 
in  test  No.  4)  the  three  best  Shorthorns  (one  in  each 

test,  including  the  two-year-old  heifer)  gave 5861  lbs. 

While  the  Jerseys  of  the  saiije  description  gave.-    5330    " 

Showing  in  favor  of  Shorthorns 531    " 


DAIRY   COWS.  227 

In    test    No.    3   (butter),     "go    as    you    please," 
The  champion   Jersey  cow   at  a  cost  of  $8.57  pro- 
duced net f24-  fig 

The    champion  Shorthorn   cow    at  a  cost  of    $8.18 

produced  net T9.57 

The  champion  Guernsey  cow  at  a  cost  of  $5.57  pro- 
duced net $19.37 

In  test  No.  4  (heifers)  7  Jerseys  cost  for  food  $34.43 

and  netted 56-27 

6  Shorthorns  cost  $23.52  and  netted 47-42 

making  an  average  of  13  cents  per  head  in  favor  of  the  Jer- 
seys. 

While  butter  was  rated  by  points,  beef  was  not,  and  the 
Jerseys  got  as  much  allowance  per  pound  for  gain  in  live 
weight  as  the  Shorthorns. 

As  hinted  above,  dairy  cows  are  not  always  wanted  for 
butter  alone,  or  cheese  alone,  but  very  frequently  to  sup- 
ply city  customers  with  good  milk  for  their  tables.  The 
tests  at  the  Columbian  Dairy  School  proved  that  for  a 
large  supply  of  milk  of  the  best  flavor,  Shorthorns  not 
only  were  good  dairy  cows  in  every  sense  of  the  term,  but 
that  they  led  the  other  two  breeds.  Therefore,  if  milk  of 
good  quality  and  lots  of  it  is  wanted,  Shorthorn  cows  can 
supply  it,  to  say  nothing  of  their  "  general-use  "  qualities 
that  will  just  suit  the  farmer  who  wants  milk,  butter, 
cheese,  and  beef. 

VI.  Red    Polled   Cattle. 

By  the  late  J.  McLain  Smith,  Dayton,  Ohio,  Secretary  Red  Polled 
Cattle  Club  of  America.* 

Hornless  or  polled  cattle  have  existed  in  the  counties  of 
Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  England,  from  time  immemorial. 
Originally  there  were  two  distinct  types:  the  Suffolks, 
usually  of  a  pale  red  or  dun  color,  and  hence  known  as 
Suffolk  duns — large  and  rather  rough  cattle,  but  celebrated 
for  their  milking  qualities;  and  the  Norfolks,  commonly 
deep  red  in  color,  smaller,  finer,  more  compact  in  build, 
not  so  large  milkers,  but  great  favorites  with  the  butrlK  r. 
*  Revised  by  H.  A.  Martin,  Secretary,  Gotham,  Wis. 


228  DAlllYIJ^G. 

Youatt,  speaking  of  the  old  Suffolk  strain  as  it  existed 
in  his  day  (some  half  century  ago),  says:  "  In  the  height 
of  the  season  some  of  these  cows  will  give  as  much  as  eight 
gallons  of  milk  (80  lbs.)  in  a  day,  and  six  gallons  (60  lbs.) 
is  not  an  unusual  quantity." 

The  modern  Red  Polled  cow  is  a  result  of  the  combina. 
':i(jn  of  these  old  strains,  and  it  is  the  aim  of  the  most  pro- 
gressive breeders  to  produce  a  cow  of  medium  size,  blood- 
red  in  color,  of  fine  bone,  smooth  and  compact  of  form, 
hardy,  docile,  fatting  easily,  and  giving  a  good  flow  of 
fairly  rich  milk  all  the  year  round.  The  breed,  in  other 
words,  is  being  developed  as  a  general  farm  cow,  suited 
to  the  wants  of  the  general  farmer.  While  the  cows  can- 
not, I  think,  compete  in  flow  of  milk  with  the  best  Hol- 
steins,  or  in  yield  of  butter  with  the  best  Jerseys,  and  the 
steers  have  not,  as  yet,  taken  a  place  in  the  front  rank  at 
the  fat-stock  shows,  it  is  believed  that  the  breed  combines 
the  several  desirable  traits  as  well  at  least  as  any  other,  and 
with  them  the  equally  essential  qualities  of  hardiness,  do- 
cility, and  a  hornless  head.  As  an  illustration  of  the  points 
named,  and  a  proof  of  their  possible  combination,  the  cow 
No.  2213,  Gleaner,  V,  9,  is  credited  in  1894,  according  to 
the  accepted  record  of  the  owner,  with  a  yield  of  14,189  lbs. 
of  milk,  an  average  of  38  86  lbs.  a  day  for  the  entire  year. 
The  cow  was  then  twelve  years  old,  and  was  milking  with 
her  tenth  calf  (or  tenth  calving,  as  one  or  more  of  them 
produced  twins). 

Among  these  is  a  pair  of  twins  (Freemartins),  shown 
as  fat  stock,  at  Norwich  and  London,  England.  The  steer 
(ist  and  cup  at  Norfolk  and  ist  at  Smithfield"!  weighed  at 
I  year  5|  months  old,  1238  lbs.,  and  when  shown  again, 
at  2  years  6  months  old,  had  a  live  weight  of  1735  lbs.,  a 
gain  in  a  few  days  over  a  year  of  497  lbs.,  and  a  gain 
from  birth  of  about  2.12  lbs.  a  day.  The  heifer,  twin  to 
above  (ist  and  reserve  foi  cup  at  Norfolk  and  ist  and 
reserve  for  cup  at  Smithfield),  had  a  live  weight  when 
shown  (2  years  6  months  old)  of  1452  lbs.,  a  gain  from  birth 
of  nearly  1.8  lbs.  a  day. 


DAIRY   COWS.  229 

An  illustration  nearer  home  is  reported  by  Dr.  J.  R, 
Slingerland,  Trustee  of  the  Shaker  Society  at  Union  Vil- 
lage, O.  In  January,  1895,  he  bought  35  head  of  Shorthorn 
steers,  coming  2  years  old,  for  feeding.  At  the  same  time 
they  had  18  head,  the  same  age,  of  their  own  breeding,  the 
produce  of  a  Red  Polled  bull  on  Shorthorn  cows.  At  the 
time  named  the  full-blood  Shorthorns  averaged  940  lbs.  in 
weight,  and  the  cross-breds  790  lbs.  All  were  pastured  the 
summer  of  1895,  fed  out  in  the  late  fall,  and  sold  to  the 
same  buyer  on  the  same  day  in  January,  1896. 

The  full-blood  steers  consumed  an  average  of  85  bushels 
of  corn,  besides  hay  and  corn-fodder,  in  fatting,  and  weighed 
v/hen  sold  an  average  of  1540  lbs.  each — a  gain  of  600  lbs. 
in  the  year.  They  sold  for  $4  a  hundred.  The  polled  cross- 
breds  consumed  an  average  of  50  bushels  of  corn,  with 
corn-fodder  only  for  roughage,  and  weighed  when  sold  an 
average  of  1492  lbs. — a  gain  in  the  year  of  702  lbs.  They 
sold  for  $4.25  a  hundred. 

The  Red  Polled  bull,  Osman  1251,  used  in  producing  the 
cross-bred  steers  in  this  trial,  is  the  son  of  a  full  sister  to 
Eleanor,  and  is  the  sire  of  many  fine  dairy  cows. 

In  appearance  the  Red  Polls  greatly  resemble  Devons, 
save  the  horns,  and  except  that  they  are  somewhat  larger, 
and  the  cows,  as  a  rule,  are  better  milkers.  They  have  the 
same  rich  color,  fine  bone,  round,  smooth,  compact  form, 
free  from  prominent  points,  and  the  same  muscular  habit 
and  active  disposition  ;  and  their  meat  is  of  the  same  fine- 
grained, juicy  character. 

Milking  Qualities. — The  modern  Red  Polled  cow  does  not 
milk  so  largely  as  the  old  Suffolk,  but  her  milk  is  of  better 
quality.  Sixty  pounds  a  day,  which  Youatt  says  in  his  time 
was  not  unusual,  is  now,  I  think,  somewhat  rare.  Four 
and  a  half  to  five  gallons  a  day,  or  say  40  to  45  lbs.,  is  a 
good  yield  from  a  mature  cow  in  the  flush  of  the  season. 
Hut  she  will  easily  give,  with  proper  care,  6000  to  8000  lbs. 
in  a  year,  and  some  will  considerably  exceed  this.  In  the 
report  of  English  herds,  published  in  the  Red  Polled  Herd 
Book,  the  average  yields  of  mature  cows  in  the  best  herds 
is  fiom  5000  to  over  7000  lbs.  a  year.      In  Lord  Rothchild's 


230  DAIRYING. 

herd,  22  cows,  seven  milking  with  first  or  second  calf,  gave 
in  1895  an  average  of  7744^  lbs.  of  milk  each.  In  my  own 
little  herd  the  mature  cows  will  average  over  6000  lbs.  of 
milk  a  year  and  4  per  cent  of  fat. 

Beef  Qualities. — In  this  line,  so  far,  we  are  entirely  de- 
pendent for  facts  on  the  English  records.  No  full-blood 
steers  of  the  breed  have  as  yet  been  shown  in  this  country. 
A  few  samples  will  suffice.  At  the  Smithfield  Club  Show  in 
1889,  two  Red  Polled  steers,  two  years  old,  showed  the 
largest  daily  gain  of  anything  on  exhibition  that  old — 2.18 
lbs.  and  2.29  lbs.,  respectively.  At  the  Smithfield  Club 
Show  of  1890  a  Red  Polled  steer  dressed  the  highest  per 
cent  of  his  live  weight  of  any  animal  slaughtered — 73-72 
per  cent.  This,  according  to  the  London  Live  Stock  Journal, 
has  only  once  been  exceeded  in  England — by  a  cross-bred 
steer,  which  dressed  74  per  cent  of  his  live  weight. 

At  the  fat-stock  shows  in  England  in  1894  the  following 
live  weights  were  recorded  :  A  steer  i  year  \o\  months, 
1374  lbs.,  and  a  year  later  1702  lbs.  ;  a  steer  i  year  loj 
months,  1323  lbs.;  a  steer  i  year  loi  months,  120S  lbs.,  and 
a  year  later  1656  lbs.  ;  a  steer  i  year  9  months,  1250  lbs.,  a 
year  later  1728  lbs.,  and  at  3  years  9  months  2112  lbs. 

Mature  Red  Polled  cows,  in  breeding  condition,  should 
weigh  1200  to  1400  lbs.,  and  bulls  1800  to  2000  lbs.  A  few 
will  greatly  exceed  these  weights,  but  many,  as  now  bred, 
are  smaller.  These,  however,  are  about  the  weights  at- 
tained in  the  best  herds. 

VII.  Devon  Cattle. 
By  L.  P.  SiSSON,  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  Secretary  American  Devon  Cattle  Club. 

The  Devon  breed  of  cattle  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the 
English  cattle.  Their  native  home  is  on  the  highlands  of 
Devonshire,  in  southwestern  England.  Our  records  show 
that  in  the  year  1800  Messrs.  Winthrop  &  Davenport  im- 
ported Devons  into  Plymouth,  Mass. ;  in  1805  General  Eaton 
imported  some  into  Otsego  county.  New  York;  in  1817  Mr. 
George  Patterson  came  into  possession  of  some  De^  ons, 
brought   over    bv   T,   W.  Coke,  who   presented    them    to   a 


DAIRY   COWS.  231 

brother  of  George  Patterson;  these  afterward  were  the 
foundation  of  the  above-mentioned  herd  (George  Patter- 
son of  Sykesville,  Md.)-  These  and  other  animals  im- 
ported b}"  Mr.  Patterson,  our  records  show,  were  all  brought 
from  Devonshire,  and  from  the  best  that  could  be  found 
there. 

Others  were  imported  into  New  York  State;  among  im- 
porters whom  we  might  mention  are  John  Cowlin  of  Trux- 
ton,  N.  J.;  L.  F.  Allen,  Miles  Vernon,  A.  Becket,  W.  P. 
&  C.  S.  Wainwright,  Col.  L.  G.  Morris,  D.  W.  Catlin,  W. 
R.  Sanford,  J.  Howard  McHenry  of  Pikesville,  Md.;  C.  P. 
Halcomb  of  Delaw^are,  and  others.  Later  importations  are 
by  James  Murray  of  Virginia,  R.  W.  Cameron  of  New 
York,  Frank  Brow^n  of  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  still  later  John 
Hudson,  Moweaqua,  111.,  Dr.  J.  Cheston  Morris,  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  and  A.  S.  Worden,  Ulysses,  Pa. 

As  to  the  beef  qualities  of  the  Devons  one  only  has  to 
turn  to  the  records  of  the  markets  of  the  country  to  see 
that  they  are  among  the  leading  beefers,  bringing  the  top 
prices  at  all  times.  As  to  milk  and  butter  production  from 
Devons,  it  will  be  found  from  records  that  they  produce 
from  12  to  25  lbs.  of  butter  per  week.  Mr.  A.  E.  Baker,  of 
Wisconsin,  says  his  cows  average  him  365  lbs.  of  butter 
per  cow  for  the  year,  which  is  about  as  much  as  any  breed 
will  do  on  farmers'  feed  and  care.  Dr.  J.  Cheston  Morris 
says,  in  regard  to  Devons  for  milk:  "  A  herd  of  Devons  may 
be  relied  upon  to  give  an  annual  yield  of  2000  quarts  of 
milk  from  each  cow;  the  length  of  the  period  averages  be- 
tween 10  and  II  months,  though  single  cows  will  continue 
in  profit  from  13  to  14  months.  An  average  yield  of  seven 
quarts  daily  from  each  cow  may  therefore  be  expected, 
and  an  examination  of  milk  records  of  Devon  herds  will 
show  that  they  are  remarkably  uniform  in  their  yields. 
As  comparatively  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  their 
milking  qualities,  a  large  improvement  may  be  looked  for 
by  proper  selection  and  breeding.  As  my  animals  weigh 
only  700  lbs.  each,  it  follows  that  each  cow  has  given  be- 
tween five  and  six  times  her  own  weight  in  milk  during 
the    course    of    the    year,    besides     n.aintaining    her    own 


232  DAIRYING. 

weight,  and  producing  healthy  offspring.  This  I  consider 
a  physiological  fact  well  worthy  of  notice,  and  very 
creditable  to  the  '  little  red  cow.'  Of  course  the  same 
nutritive  power  applied  in  other  directions  would  give 
beef-producing  results,  such  as  we  all  know  of." 

Devon  cattle  are  active  and  very  hardy,  qualities  that 
make  them  especially  valuable  in  dry  or  mountainous  re- 
gions. The  bulls  are  quite  intelligent  and  active,  and  are 
not  as  liable  to  be  cross  as  some  other  breeds;  they  weigh 
from  1800  to  2000  lbs.  at  three  to  four  years  old.  The  cows 
have  strong  vital  organs,  and  large  digestive  and  assimi- 
lating powers.  Their  udders  are  not  large  for  the  amoun: 
of  milk  they  give,  with  good  elastic  teats,  seldom  sore. 
The  milk  is  of  good  quality,  either  as  food  for  infants  and 
invalids,  for  the  manufacture  of  butter  or  cheese,  or  for 
market  delivery;  it  does  not  churn  in  the  cans,  nor  look 
blue  in  the  bottle. 

Devons  will  pay  their  way  at  the  dairy  as  well  as  in  the 
feeder's  stable;  they  will  keep  in  good  condition,  and  look 
plump  and  sleek  on  pasture  that  other  breeds  can  hardly 
live  on;  they  are  easy  keepers,  good  producers  of  the  finest 
kind  of  milk,  and  also  make  the  very  best  quality  of  beef. 

VIII.  Dutch  Belted  Cattle. 

By  H.  B.  Richards,  Easton,  Penna,,  Secretary  Dutch  Belted  Cattle  Asso- 
ciation of  America. 

Dutch  belted  cattle  are  natives  of  Holland,  and  originated 
in  that  country  during  the  seventeenth  century,  when  the 
cattle  interests  of  Holland  were  in  the  most  thrifty  condi- 
tion; in  fact,  it  was  the  chief  industry  of  the  country.  At 
that  lime  breeding  had  been  developed  to  a  science,  and 
cattle  of  remarkable  contrast  of  color  were  bred  whose 
foundation  color  was  black,  with  a  broad  white  band 
around  the  centre  of  the  body,  a  white  head,  a  black  ring 
around  each  eye,  and  a  full  white  tail.  Wonderful  and 
remarkable  as  it  may  appear,  a  feat  was  accomplished 
during  that  period  that  would  defy  our  modern  breeders 
and  can  be  safely  classified  as  a  lost  art. 

Dutch  belted  cattle  became  a  classified  breed  and  were 


DAIRY  COWS.  233 

bred  to  a  remarkably  high  standard.  For  several  centuries 
they  were  owned  and  controlled  by  the  nobility  keeping 
them  pure  and  limiting  their  number  to  their  ownership. 
They  were  first  imported  into  this  country  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  present  century,  the  importers  procuring  the 
finest  herds  in  Holland;  the  herds  in  the  United  States 
to-day  are  purely  of  American  breeding. 

The  American  Association  have  adopted  as  their  standard 
of  color  a  pure  black,  with  a  continuous  white  belt  around 
their  body,  beginning  behind  the  shoulders  and  extending 
nearly  to  the  hips;  this  sharp  contrast  of  colors  makes  a 
beautiful  and  imposing  contrast  and  a  most  beautiful 
sight;  when  seen  in  number  grazing  on  the  green,  they  are 
admired  by  all,  even  if  not  interested  in  cattle  or  farm- 
ing. This  belt  is  almost  invariably  reproduced,  and  is 
so  perfectly  fixed  that  it  will  crop  out  in  their  grades  for 
many  generations,  even  against  cold  strains  of  blood;  the 
potency  of  this  feature  is  very  striking,  as  the  belt  is  often 
reproduced  after  the  foundation  color  is  lost;  and  grades 
of  any  foundation  color  can  be  produced  to  an  unlimited 
extent. 

Their  form  is  a  strong  characterized  dairy  type,  medium 
size,  and  possessing  all  the  qualifications  of  an  ideal  dairy 
animal.  They  are  strictly  a  dairy  breed,  and  are  large  and 
persistent  milkers;  strong  constitutions,  peaceable  and 
quiet  dispositions  of  a  very  compact  form.  Cows  range 
from  eight  to  twelve  hundred,  and  bulls  reach  eighteen 
to  twenty  hundred.  The  late  P.  T.  Barnum,  the  showman 
of  national  fame,  said:  "They  struck  my  tancy  in  Holland 
about  1850;  I  imported  a  few,  and  then  found  their  unique 
and  novel  appearance  not  their  only  quality,  for  they 
proved  to  be  wonderful  milkers,  far  superior  to  any  other 
cattle  to  which  my  attention  has  been  drawn." 

Nearly  all  the  herds  now  in  the  United  States  are  owned 
in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Massachusetts,  with  a 
few  scattering  South  and  West.  A  herd  of  eighteen  were 
exhibited  at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago, 
where  they  attracted  great  attention  and  were  admired  by 
thousands  who  had  never  heard  of  such  novel  ana  beautiful 


234  DAIRTIN'G. 

cattle  before.  This  herd  was  sold  and  exported  to  a  wealthy 
resident  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  where  they  are  now  kept 
and  are  doing  well  in  that  congenial  climate.  There  is  an 
association  of  breeders  of  these  cattle  known  as  the  Dutch 
Belted  Cattle  Association  of  America,  who  have  adopted  a 
high  standard  of  excellence,  requiring  breeders  to  breed 
typical  animals  of  correct  markings,  thereby  gaining 
uniformity  and  correctness  of  type.  The  association  issues 
a  herd-book,  of  which  vol.  lo  of  recent  issue,  is  the  last 
number. 

IX.  Brown-Swiss  Cattle. 

By  N.  S.  Fish,  Groton,  Conn.,  late  Secretary  Brown-Swiss  Cattle 
Breeders'  Association.* 

Brown-Swiss  cattle  were  first  imported  into  this  coun- 
try by  Mr.  Henry  M.  Clarke  of  Belmont,  Mas'-.,  in  1869. 
He  imported  seven  cows  and  one  bull;  since  then  there 
have  been  several  importations.  Most  of  the  animals 
have  come  from  the  famed  Canton  of  Schwyz,  and  the 
adjacent  Cantons  of  Zug,  Uri,  and  Unterwalden.  The  Rigi 
mountains,  covered  to  their  tops  with  fine,  rich  herbage,  lie 
here,  and  some  of  the  finest  breeds  of  cattle  in  the  whole 
country  are  here  produced,  the  cattle  grazing  in  the  valley 
in  winter  and  on  the  mountains  in  summer. 

The  United  States  consul  at  Zurich  in  iSS2made  a  report 
to  our  government  of  the  cattle  and  dairy  interest  of 
Switzerland.  He  writes:  "  For  a  hundred  years  Switzer- 
land has  been  famous  for  the  production  of  its  dairies.  At 
the  cattle  show  of  Paris,  1878,  every  Swiss  cow  exhibited 
bore  away  a  prize  in  competition  with  exhibits  from  Hol- 
land, England,  Denmark,  and  other  famous  cattle  countries. 

The  Brown-Swiss  cattle  are  fed  on  grass  or  hay  only 
the  year  through.  A  fair  average  for  cows  in  Canton 
Zurich  is  ten  quarts  of  milk  per  day  the  milking-year 
through;  in  Schwyz  and  Zug  the  average  is  but  little 
less." 

The  consul  of  St.  Gall  says:  "When  a  farmer  in  Ger- 
many, Italy,  or  France  wishes  to  improve  his  breed,  he 
*  Revised  by  C  D.  Nixon,  Secretary,  Owego,  N.  Y. 


DAIRY   COWS.  235 

makes  a  selection  from  Swiss  herds  as  the  healthiest  and 
hardiest  known  to  the  herd-book.  .  .  .  Tne  Brown- 
Swiss  is  considered  the  dairy  breed  /ar  excellence  of  Swit- 
zerland; it  not  only  gives  more  milk,  but  this  is  richer 
than  any  other  European  breed  of  cattle." 

Marked  CJuD'acteristics. — Size  large;  form  firm;  color 
shades  from  dark  to  light  chestnut  brown.  The  tuft  of 
hair  between  the  horns,  on  the  inside  of  ear,  and  a  narrow 
line  along  the  back  generally  light.  Horns  rather  short, 
waxey,  with  black  tips.  Nose  black,  with  mealy-colored 
band  surrounding  nose.  Switch,  hoofs,  and  tongue  black. 
Straight  hind  legs,  wide  thighs,  and  heavy  quarters.  The 
cows  often  weigh  1600  lbs.,  bulls  2000  lbs.  Calves  large, 
some  weighing  no  lbs.  when  dropped.  They  mature  fast, 
have  healthy  constitutions,  yielding  generous  returns  for 
whatever  care,  time,  labor,  or  money  is  expended  on  them. 

A  cow  shown  at  the  Chicago  Fat  Stock  Show  in  November, 
1891,  gave  in  three  days  245  lbs.  of  milk,  showing  9.32  lbs.  of 
butter-fat  by  the  Babcock  test,  yielding  during  one  day  of 
the  test  3^  lbs.  of  fat,  the  largest  amount  of  butter-fat  ever 
shown  at  an  official  test  of  any  cow  of  any  breed  up  to  that 
time.  The  cow  Muotta  calved  about  November  i,  1893, 
and  in  February,  1894,  gave  67  lbs.  of  milk  in  one  day. 

The  milk  of  Brown-Swiss  cows  has  a  sweet  flavor  which 
is  very  noticeable,  and  makes  it  very  desirable  for  family 
use.  With  good  farm  care  the  cows  give  under  favorable 
circumstances  from  20  to  25  quarts  of  milk  per  day.  They 
make  the  finest  of  beef  and  veal;  when  intended  to  be 
used  for  working  oxen,  they  are  easily  broken  and  are  fast 
walkers. 

The  cows  are  persistent  milkers,  with  good  teats;  where 
used  to  produce  grade  animals  they  give  the  best  of  sat- 
isfaction, with  the  Swiss  characteristics  predominating. 
There  are  now  about  8600  recorded  animals  in  this  country, 
located  in  almost  every  State,  and  some  in  Mexico. 


236  DAIKTING. 

YIELD   OF   MILK   AND   FAT  FROM  DAIRY  COWS, 

A  good  dairy  cow  should  give  at  least  5000  pounds  ot 
milk  during  a  whole  period  of  lactation.  As  the  quality  01 
milk  given  by  different  cows  varies  greatly,  however,  as 
will  be  apparent  from  the  tables  given  in  the  following,  the 
yield  of  fat  produced  during  a  lactation  period  is  a  better 
standard  to  go  by  than  that  of  the  milk;  three-fourths  of  a 
pound  of  lat  per  day  for  an  average  of  300  days  may  be  con- 
sidered a  good  yield  (total  225  pounds).  Many  dairy  farmers 
aim  to  have  all  mature  cows  in  their  herds  produce  a  pound 
of  fat,  on  the  average,  for  every  day  in  the  year.  To  do 
this,  a  cow  whose  milk  tests  about  4  per  cent,  must  give  25 
pounds  of  milk  a  day  (3  gallons)  as  an  average  for  the 
whole  year;  a  cow  producing  3  per  cent  milk  must  give  33^^ 
pounds  of  milk  daily,  and  one  producing  5  per  cent  milk 
must  yield  20  pounds  of  milk  daily,  on  the  average,  etc. 

The  flow  of  milk  is  usually  at  its  highest  shortly  after 
calving,  and  then  gradually  decreases,  the  rate  of  decrease 
being  determined  by  the  inbred  milking  qualities  of  the 
cow  and  the  system  of  feeding  practised.  The  average  de- 
crease in  milk  yield  for  good  dairy  cows  on  good  feed  is 
from  one  half  to  three  fourths  of  a  pound  per  head  per  ten 
days.  Where  cows  are  not  fed  liberally  and  receive  but  lit- 
tle concentrated  feed,  the  decrease  will  be  more  marked, 
and  often  exceed  one  pound  of  milk  per  head  per  ten  days. 
The  decrease  is  more  marked  during  the  latter  stages  of 
the  period  of  lactation  than  in  the  earlier  ones,  and  is  also 
more  marked  in  cows  with  poorly  developed  milking  qual- 
ities than  in  good  dairy  cows.  A  cow  is  considered  at  her 
best  when  from  five  to  seven  years  old;  the  constitutional 
strength  of  the  animal,  the  system  of  feeding  practised, 
and  the  general  treatment  given  the  cow  will  determine 
her  period  of  usefulness. 

The  quality  of  the  milk  produced  by  individual  cows 
generally  remains  fairly  uniform  through  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  lactation  period,  and  is  not  permanently  influ- 
enced in  any  marked  manner  by  feed  or  any  external 
conditions.     During  the  last  couple  of  months,  when  the 


DATTIY   COWS. 


!37 


yield  of  milk  is  decreasing  more  rapidly  than  before,  the 
quality  is  generally  improved  to  some  extent,  the  variation 
being,  as  a  rule,  within  i  per  cent.  Variations  of  several 
per  cents  of  fat  may  sometimes  occur  from  day  to  day,  or 
milking  to  milking,  in  the  milk  from  single  cows;  variations 
amounting  to  i  per  cent  are  common.  Herd  milk  varies 
much  less,  the  percentages  of  fat  on  subsequent  days  being 
as  a  rule  within  two  tenths  of  one  per  cent,  and  only  excep- 
tionally near  one  per  cent. 

RESULTS    OF    TESTS    OF    DAIRY    BREEDS 

Conducted  by  American  Agricultural 
Experiment  Stations. 


Breed. 

o  = 

y 

■  c 

0>-i 

-4^ 

To 

Averagfc 

Yields  per 

Lactation 

Period. 

u 

V     ■ 

^% 

^■^> 

S  u 

< 

5.60 

11° 

3.60 
4.44 
4.60 

3-73 

5-50 
3-47 
3.67 

4.89 
5.09 
3-55 
3-69 
3-79 

Average  Cost  of 

Milk. 

Fat. 

Food 

Eaten 

per  Day. 

Produc- 
ing  TOO 

lbs.  Milk. 

Produc- 
ing I  lb. 
Fat. 

New  York 

(Geneva): 

Jersey     

Guernsey 

Holstein  . . 

Ayrshire 

Short  Horn 

Devon    

American    Hol- 

derness 

Ma  INF.: 

Jersey. 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

New  Jersey: 

Jersey 

Guernsey   

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

Short  Horn... 

4 
4 
4 
4 

I 

3 

2 

2 
2 
2 

3 

4 
3 
4 
3 

IT 

6 
4 

12 
2 

5 

4 

4 
3 
4 

3 
4 
3 

t 

lbs. 

5045 
5385 
7918 
6824 
6055 
3984 

5721 

5460 
8369 
6612 

7695 
7446 

8455 
7461 

10457 

lbs. 

282.1 

285  5 
266.1 
244.8 
269.0 
183.3 

213. 1 

297.0 
285.0 
233.0 

376.3 
379 -o 
300.2 
275-3 
396.3 

cents 

12.4 
12.5 
'3-9 
13-5 
12.7 
10.3 

12.2 

16.2 
19.5 
17. 1 

16. 1 
14.9 

19-3 
15-0 
15-4 

cents 

90 
86 
65 
74 
78 

94 
76 

113. 0 

85.3 
94.9 

87.1 
78.1 

79-3 
76.0 
79.2 

cents 

16. 1 
16.1 
19.1 
20.2 
17.2 
20.5 

20.1 

20.4 

25.2 
26.8 

17.9 

15  3 
22.4 
20.6 
20.6 

Averages yor  ail  Breeds  and  Lactation  Periods. 


Jersey     

(Guernsey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

Short  Horn 

Devon  

.American        Hol- 
derness  

Total 


9 

18 

5579 

301. 1 

5.40 

8 

10 

6210 

322  9 

5.20 

9 

10 

8215 

282.0 

3-4^ 

TO 

20 

6909 

248.5 

3  60 

4 

5 

8696 

345-4 

3-97 

3 

5 

3984 

183.3 

4.60 

2 

4 

5721 

213.1 

3-73 

43 

72 

94-7 
82.8 

74-7 
78.5 
78.7 
94.0 

76.0 


174 
15.8 
21.5 

21.5 
19.4 
20.5 

20.1 


238  DAIRYING. 

The  animals  included  in  the  foregoing  breed  tests  ranl« 
on  the  average  as  follows: 

1.  As  to  yield  of  fat:  Shorthorn,  Guernsey,  Jersey,  Hol- 
stein,  Ayrshire,  American  Holderness,  Devon. 

2.  As  to  cost  of  producing  i  lb.  of  fat:  Guernsey,  Jersey, 
Shorthorn,  American  Holderness,  Devon,  Holstein  and 
Ayrshire. 

3.  As  to  yield  of  milk:  Shorthorn,  Holstein,  Ayrshire, 
Guernsey,  American  Holderness,  Jersey,  Devon. 

4.  As  to  cost  of  produci)ig  100  ll>s.  of  f/iilk:  Holstein, 
American  Holderness,  Ayrshire,  Shorthorn,  Guernsey, 
Devon,   Jersey. 

5.  As  to  cost  of  food:  Devon,  American  Holderness, 
Guernsey,  Jersey,  Shorthorn,  Ayrshire,  Holstein. 

6.  As  toi'ichness  of  ?nilk:  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Devon,  Short- 
horn, American  Holderness,  Ayrshire,  Holstein. 

RESULTS  OF  brf:i:i)  tksts  conducted  at 

WORLD'S  COLU3IB1AX    EXPOSITION,    1H93. 

A.  Breed  Tesi  No.  I  (Cheese  Test),  May  10  to  25. 

Milk  Fat  Price  of 

Pro-  Pro-  Cheese.  Cheese  Cost 

duced,  diiced,  'bs.  per  lb.,  of             Net 

lbs.  lbs.  cents.  Feed.        Gain. 

acjerseys 13,2964  601  gi  1451.8  13-36  $98.14       $119.82 

asGueinseys 10,938.6  488.42  1130.6  11.95  76.25           88.30 

25Short-horns.    ...    12,186.9  436.60  1077.6  1300  9936           81.36 

B.  Breed  Test  No.  2  (Ninety  day  Butter  Test\  June  i  to  Aug.  29. 

Buttei    I'rice  of 
credited  Hutter. 

25  Jerseys 73,488.8     3516.08     4274.01     $i747-37     $587.50    $1323.81 

25  Guernseys 61,781.7     2784.56     3360.43        1355-44       484->4         997-64 

24  Shoi  t-horns..  . . .    66,263.2    2409.97    2890.87       1171.77       501.79        910.12 

Averages  per  day  per  cow. 

Fat,  Cost  of 

per  cent.  Food. 

Jerseys    32.7         1.56  4.78  26.1  cts. 

Guernseys   27.5  1.24  4.51  21.5    " 

Short-horns 30.7  1.12  3.64  23.2    " 

C.  Breed  Test  No.  3  (Thirty-day  Butter  Test),  Aug.  29  to  Sept.  28. 

Butter  Price  of 

credited  Butter. 

15  Jerseys 13,921.9      685.81      837.21  $385-59    $"1.24      $274^3 

15  Guernseys 13^5184       597  96       724-17  3=9-77         92-77         2.37-oo 

is  Short-horns 15,618.3       555-43       662.67  303-69       '04.55         19889 

D.  Breed  Test  No.  4  (Heifer  Test),  Sept  30  to  Oct.  20. 

7  Jerseys 3356.6       15538       194-23        $77-69     $.-?4-44  $56-28 

6  Short  horns 2581.0        97-89       122.36  4895       23-53  47-4^ 


DAIRY    COWS. 


239 


RESULTS   OF   "COW  DEMONSTRATION"  AT  LOUISIANA 
PURCHASE    EXPOSITION,    ST.  LOUIS,    1904.     (Fakrington.) 


Brown- 
Swiss. 

Hol- 
steins. 

Jerseys. 

Short- 
horns. 

Average  data  for  number  of  cou's 
Milk  per  day  (av.  for  1 20  days) 
lbs 

5 

44.  2 
3.62 
I  .596 
392 
1.24 

14-7 

5I-0 
3-4 
1.748 
4-36 

15 

53-4 
3-43 
1.832 
4.24 
1  .07 

13-5 

67.5 
3-5 
2.355 
5-17 

25 

41  -5 
4.70 
I  .936 
3.63 
1. 16 

10.5 

48.4 
4.8 
2.334 
4-36 

28 

34-6 
3 -So 
I  .277 
2.98 
1.32 

15-3 

43-4 
4.0 

1-737 
3-72 

Per  cent  fat  in  milk 

Butter-fat  per  day,  lbs 

Solids  not  fat  per  day.  lbs.   .  . 

Feed  cost  per  qt.  of  milk.  cts. 

*'        *♦      '*    lb  butter,  cts.  . 

Data  for  best  cows: 

Milk  per  dav    lbs.            .  .  . 

Per  cent  fat  in  milk 

Butter-fat  per  day,  lbs 

Solids  not  fat  per  day    lbs.  .  . 

HIGHEST      RECORD      FOR      YIELD       OF      BUTTER-FAT 

During     Twenty-four     Hour.s      3Iade      by     any      Cow      in    i». 

Public   Test. 


At  a  Fair. 
Brienz,  Brown-Swiss,  11  years  old, 
weighing  1395  lbs. 
Average  daily  yield  of 

milk 81.7     lbs. 

Average  daily  yield  of 

fat 3.1 1    " 

Average  per  cent  of  fat 

in  day's  milk 3.81 

(American   Dairy  Show,   Chicago, 
1891 ,  3-day  test.) 


At  Home. 
DeKol     Witkop     Wayne    2d,    No. 

58,709,  H.-F.  H.  B. 
Yield  of  milk 70.7    lbs. 

"        "  fat 4.77    " 

Average   per   cent   of 

fat  in  day's  milk  .  .  6.75 
(March  1-2,  iqoS.  7-day  test, 
Feb.  29-Mar.  7,  1908,  conducted 
by  the  Cornell  Univ.  (N.  Y.) 
Experiment  Station;  total  yield 
for  week,  484.5  lbs.  milk  and 
23.095  lbs.  fat;  average  per 
cent  of  fat  in  milk,  4.77);  test 
commenced  6  days  from  last 
calving;  age  of  cow,  6  years 
10  months). 


240 


DAIRYING. 


OFFICIAL  RECORDS  FOR    MILK  AND 
PRODUCTION. 


BUTTER-FAT 


Breed. 


Year. 


Thirty  Days. 


Seven  Days. 


Twenty-four 
Hours. 


(A)  Milk 

Records. 
Ayrshire 


Brown  Swiss. . 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Jersey 

Shorthorn .  . . . 
Red  Polled .  .  . 


(B)  Butter- 
fat    Records. 
Ayrshire 


Brown  Swiss. . 
Guernsey 

Holstein 

Jersey 

Shorthorn .  . . . 
Red  Polled .  .  . 


Auchenbrain 
Brown  Kate 

4th, 
23,022.0  lbs. 
College  Bra- 
vura 2d, 
2577 
10,460.6  lbs. 
May  Rilma 

22,761 
10,673.0  lbs. 
Pietertje  2d, 

3273  H, 
30,318.5  lbs. 


Eminent's 
Bess,  209,719 
18,782.9  lbs. 

Rose  of  Glen- 
side, 
18,075.2  lbs. 
Pear,  24,888 
13,160. 1  lbs. 


Auchenbrain 
Brown  Kate 

4th, 
917.60  lbs. 
College  Bra- 
vura 2d,  2577 
798. 16  lbs. 
May  Rilma, 

22.761 
1073.41  lbs. 

Banostine 

Belle  de  Kol, 

90,441 

1058.34  lbs. 

Sophie  19th 

of  Hood 

Farm, 

189,748 

999. 14  lbs. 

Ruth  3d. 

20,440 

706.63  lbs. 

Pear,    24,888 

603 .  66  lbs. 


Same, 
2322.9 


Murne  Cowan 

19.597 

2361.5  lbs. 

Riverside 

Sadie  De 

Kol  Burke, 

70,708 

3707.2  lbs. 

Hector's 

Fairy  Belle, 

179,909 

1641 .9  lbs. 

Daisy  O.xford 

1788  lbs. 


Gerranton 
Dora  2d, 
23.853 
102.04  lbs. 


Same. 
564.8  lbs. 

Same, 
902. 1  lbs. 


Jacoba  Irene, 

146,443 

444. 1  lbs. 

Rose  of  Glen- 
side. 
434- 1  lbs. 
Popsey  3d, 
U-43,  9689 
393.25  lbs. 


Same. 
23.03  lbs.* 


Same. 
82.1   lbs. 

Margie  New- 
man, 76.312 
136.5  lbs. 


Same, 
62.8  lbs. 

Hera  N-6, 

3505 
63 . 5  lbs. 


Same, 
3.29  lbs.* 


Same, 
103.03  lbs. 


K.  P.  Pon- 
tiac  Lass, 

106,812 
137. 19  lbs. 

Hector's 
Fairy  Belle, 

179,909 
83.63  lbs. 

Rose  of 
Glenside, 
63 .  45  lbs. 

Same, 
68.85  lbs. 


Same, 
24.4  Ibs.f 

Same, 
35 -34  lbs. 


Sophie  19th 

of  Hood 

Farm, 

189,748 

25.44  lbs. 


Golden    Elsie 
2d,  33.422 
3.70  lbs. 


Nina,  26,710 
17.80  lbs. 


*  Aver,  production  calculated  from  30-day  record, 
t  Tied  with  Murne  Cowan,  19, 597. 


Hera.  N-6, 

3505 

3.86  lbs. 


DAIRY    COWS. 


241 


RESULTS    OF   ENGLISH   MILKING   TRIALS. 

(Averages  of  breed-tests  conducted  at  the  annual  dairy  shows  of  the  Brit- 
ish Dairy  Farmers'  Assoc,  1879-98,  inclusive.) 


"rtC 

h 


236 
272 


32 

2 

35 
I 
I 

44 

54 
785 


Breed. 


Shorthorns 

Jerseys 

Guernseys 

Holsteins  (Dutch) 

Ayrshires   

Devons 

Red  Polls   

Welsh   

Aberdeen  Angus. 
Kerries  and  Dex- 
ter Kerries 

Crosses  


Aver- 
a*^e 

Yiefd  of 

Milk 

per 

Day. 


lbs. 


45' 


30-0 
45.2 
42.2 
30.1 
41.9 
46.0 
60.3 


531 


Total  Solids 


Yield 
per 
Day. 


lbs. 

5-77 
4.18 

4-13 
5-53 
5.61 

4.32 
5  26 
5.86 
8.29 

3.62 
7.07 


Per 
Cent 


12.72 
14.46 
13-50 
12.25 
13.29 

14-34 
12.55 
12.74 
13-74 

13-36 
13-31 


Fat. 


Yield 
per 
Day. 


lbs. 
70 
44 
41 
54 
77 
48 

54 
91 


Per 
Cent, 


3-75 
4.Q8 
4.61 

341 
4. '9 
4.90 
3.68 
4 .  ib 
4-99 

4.36 

3-90 


Solids 

not 

Fat, 

Per 

Cent. 


8.97 
9.48 
8.89 
8.84 
9. 10 

9-44 
8.87 
8.58 
3.75 

9.00 
9.41 


Live 
Weight. 


lbs. 
1405(117)* 

856  (157) 
1026  (49) 

1383  (3) 
1046  (21) 


1162  (32) 


787  (4O 
1230  (38) 


*  Average  for  117  animals. 


REQUIREMENTS     FOR     ADMISSION     TO     ADVANCED 
REGISTERS   OF  BREED   ASSOCIATIONS,   1913. 


Requirements  in  Pounds  at 

Pounds  In- 

Breed. 

Based  on 

crease  per 
Day  over 

2  yrs. 

3  yrs. 

6500 
236.0 

4.  yrs. 

5  yrs. 

6  yrs. 

Minimum. 

Ayrshire    i 

Yrs.  milk 
"     fat 

6000 
2 14 -3 

7500 
279.0 

8500 
322.0 

* 
* 

1.37  and  2.74 
.o6'and     .12 

Brown-      1 
Swiss     \ 

Yrs.  milk 

6ooot 

6430 

7288 

8146 

QOOO 

2. 35 

"     fat 

222.0 

238.5 

271.3 

304.2 

337.0 

.09 

Guernsey. . 

Yrs.  fat 

250.5 

287.0 

323.5 

360.0 

* 

.  10 

Holstein. .  . 

7  da.  fat 

7.2 

8.8 

10.4 

12.0 

=f! 

.00439 

Jersey 

7  da.  fat 

12.0 

12.0 

12.0 

12.0 

* 

Yrs.  fat 

250.5 

287.0 

323.5 

360.0 

* 

.10 

*  No  increase, 
t  At  2.5  years. 


242 


DAIRYIK^G. 


AVERAGE  PER  CENT  OF  FAT  AND  PRODUC- 
TIOxV  OF  MILK  AND  BUTTER  FAT  BY  PURE- 
BRED   DAIRY    COAVS,    PER  BREED.* 


Breed. 


Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein-Friesian . 

Shorthorn 

Ayrshire 

Red  Polled 

Brown  Swiss 

Devon 

Dutch  Belted.  .  .  . 

Polled  Jersey 

French  Canadian. 


No.  of 
Cows. 


491 

191 

679 

370 

108 

50 

20 

50 

S 

s 
s 


Per  Cent 
Fat. 


.98 
•77 
.28 
•  73 
.84 
•73 
.78 
■57 
.40 
.66 
.99 


No.  of 
Cows. 


425 
151 

503 

27s 

so 

50 

14 

27 

5 

5 

5 


Average 
Daily 

Milk- 
Yield. 


lbs. 
27-3 
29.7 
48.8 
43-5 
37^o 


37. 
37. 
13. 
27. 
22 . 
27, 


Calcii- 

lated 
Average 

Dailv 
Yield  of 

Fat. 


lbs. 
1.36 
1 .42 
1 .  60 
1 .  62 
1.42 
I  39 
I. 41 
.60 
.92 
1.07 
1.08 


*  See  Woll,  On  the  Average  Composition  of  Milk  of  Pure-bred  Cows 
of  Different  Breeds  (Wis.  Exp.  Sta.,  Report  1901). 

AVERAGE  PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  MILK 
FROM    DIFFERENT    BREEDS.    ^Konig.) 


Name  of  Brc'-'i. 


Steyer  (Austrian) 

Simmentlial  (Swiss)... 
Tillerthal  (Tyrolean).. 
Vorarlberg  (Austrian). 
Algau  (Bavarian)  .... 

Bohemian 

Holstein     . . 

Oldenburg  (German). . 

Angler  (Danish) 

Short-horn 

Devon    

Ayrshire 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

French   

Scandinavian 


■i< 


86.90 
87  26 

87-43 
87.38 
87.88 
86.00 
88.04 
87  95 

88.15 
87.20 

86.57 
86.93 
85.90 

85-39 
87.20 
88.00 


4  17 
3-79 
3  70 


3-47 
4  44 
3-58 
4  32 
5-11 
3-90 
3-5t 


.r  3 

!/;  — 


24 
.64 
07 

91 
22 
67 
99 


^  U 

St/5 


4  0^ 

5.8. 

5-10 
5-40 
5-13 

4  63 
4. 16 
4.81 

5-43 

5  43 
5  70 
4-38 
5.06 

4-97 


73 
.70 
.70 
•77 
•57 
.64 
•56 
.76 

:69 

.64 
•64 

•74 
:^i4(?) 
•77 
.76 


C/5 


13.  10 
12.74 

12  578 
12 .62  9 
12.  12 
14.00 

ii.q6 
12.05 
11.85 
12.80 

13  43 
13-07 
14. 10 
14.61 
12.80 
12.00 


DAIEY    COWS.  243 

METHODS  OP  JUDGING  THE  VALUE  OF  DAIRY 

COWS. 

The  British  Dairy  Farmers'  Association,  which  has  con- 
ducted tests  of  dairy  cows  at  their  annual  fair  for  the  last 
twenty  years,  has  during  late  years  'cored  the  dairy  cows 
competing  fur  premiums  according  to  the  following  scale  : 

I  point  for  each  pound  of  milk; 
20  points  for  each  pound  of  fat; 
4  points  for  each  pound  of  solids  not  fat. 
I  point  for  each  ten  days  in  milk  after  the  first  twenty 
days  (limit  200  days). 
10  points  are  deducted  from  the  total  score  for  each 
per  cent,  of  fat  below  three  per  cent  in  the  milk. 

The  cows  entered  in  the  test  are  separated  into  four 
classes,  according  to  the  breed,  each  class  being  divided 
into  two  divisions,  cows  and  heifers.  The  classes  are 
Shorthorns,  Jerseys,  Guernseys,  and  cross-breeds. 

Other  associations  abroad  or  in  this  country  have  not 
generally  followed  any  definite  plan  from  year  to  year  in 
awarding  premiums  to  dairy  cows  at  fairs,  the  awards  having 
been  given  to  cows  producing  most  milk,  or  richest  milk, 
or  most  butter-fat,  or  most  solids,  during  the  test,  which 
may  have  lasted  one  to  three  days.  At  the  Vermont  State 
Fair,  1S89,  the  following  points  were  given  :  For  each  20 
days  since  calving,  i  point  ;  for  each  10  days  of  gestation, 
I  point  •  for  each  2  oz.  of  total  solids  in  24  hours'  milk,  i 
point  ;  for  eacti  oz.  of  butter-fat  in  24  hours'  milk,  2  points; 
for  each  2  oz.  of  salted  butter  from  24  hours'  milk,  i  point. 
In  the  milking  trials  conducted  by  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England,  the  size  of  the  cows  has  been  con- 
sidered, the  cows  being,  as  a  rule,  separated  into  two 
classes,  viz.,  over  and  under  rino  lbs.  liv'e  weight. 

From  the  best  information  at  hand  at  the  present,  the 
system  of  awards  adopted  by  the  British  Dairy  Farmers' 
Association,  and  given  above,  must  be  considered  the  most 
perfect  and  the  most  just  to  all  concerned  Its  main  short- 
comings lie,  as  it  would  seem,  in  its  not  considering  the 
food  eaten  by  each  animal  during  the  test,  and  in  the  fact 
tliai  the  test  is   made  at   the   fair,  and   not  at   home   under 


244  DAIRYIJiTG. 

every-day  conditions  and  in  surroundings  familiar  to  the  animals. 
The  former  objection  would  be  removed  by  taking  into  ac- 
count the  dry  matter  in  the  food  eaten,  as  shown  by  chemical 
analysis.  (See  also  Wisconsin  Exp.  Station,  Research  bull. 
No.  26,  pp.  78-80.) 

BUYING  AND  SELLING  COWS  BY  TESTS  OF  THEIK 

MILK.         (E.MKRY.) 

The  money  value  of  a  cow  may  be  estimated  by  multi- 
plying the  number  of  gallons  of  milk  which  the  cow  gives 
by  12,  adding  to  or  subtracting  from  this  product  one  dollar 
for  every  one  fourth  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk  above  or 
below  3.5  per  cent. 

.,   ,  pounds  of  milk  per  dav  ,       , 

Value  =— — ^-— '-  X  12  -[-4  (per  cent  fat  -q.s». 

(See  Bull.  No.  113,  N.  C.  Exp.  Station.) 


FIFTY'  DAIRY'  RULES. 

(U.  S.    DiiPARTMENT    OF    A(.I<ICUI.TU1<E.) 

The  Owner  and  his  Helpers. — i.  Read  current  dairy  liter- 
ature and  keep  posted  on  new  ideas. 

2.  Observe  and  enforce  the  utmost  cleanliness  about  the 
cattle,  their  attendants,  the  stable,  the  dairy,  and  all  uten- 
sils. 

3.  A  person  suffering  from  any  disease,  or  who  has  been 
exposed  to  a  contagious  disease,  must  remain  away  from 
the  cows  and  the  milk. 

The  Stable. — 4.  Keep  dairy  cattle  in  a  room  or  building 
by  themselves.  It  is  preferable  to  have  no  cellar  below  and 
no  storage  loft  above. 

5.  Stables  should  be  well  ventilated,  lighted,  and  drained; 
should  have  tight  floors  and  walls  and  be  plainly  con- 
structed. 

6.  Never  use  musty  or  dirty  litter. 

7.  Allow  no  strong-smelling  material  in  the  stable  for  any 
length  of  time.     Store  the  manure   under  cover  outside  the 


DAIRY    COWS.  245 

cow-stable,  and  remove  it  to  a  distance  as  often  as   practi- 
cable. 

8.  Whitewash  the  stable  once  or  twice  a  year  ;  use  land 
plaster  in  the  manure-gutters  daily. 

9.  Use  no  dry,  dusty  feed  just  previous  to  milking  ;  if 
fodder  is  dust}',  sprinkle  it  before  it  is  fed. 

10.  Clean  and  thoroughly  air  the  stable  before  milking  ; 
in  hot  weather  sprinkle  the  floor. 

11.  Keep  the  stable  and  dairy-room  in  good  condition, 
and  then  insist  that  the  dairy,  factory,  or  place  where  the 
milk  goes  be  kept  equally  well. 

The  Co7us. — 12.  Have  the  herd  examined  at  least  twice  a 
year  by  a  skilled  veterinarian. 

13.  Promptly  remove  from  the  herd  any  animal  suspected 
of  being  in  bad  health,  and  reject  her  milk.  Never  add  an 
animal  to  the  herd  untilcertain  it  is  free  from  disease,  espe- 
cially tuberculosis. 

14.  Do  not  move  cows  faster  than  a  comfortable  walk 
while  on  the  way  to  place  of  milking  or  feeding. 

15.  Never  allow  the  cows  to  be  excited  by  hard  driving, 
abuse,  loud  talking,  or  unnecessary  disturbance  ;  do  not  ex- 
pose them  to  cold  or  storms. 

16.  Do  not  change  the  feed  suddenly. 

17.  Feed  liberally,  and  use  only  fresh,  palatable  feed- 
stuffs  ;  in  no  case  should  decomposed  or  moldy  material  be 
used. 

18.  Provide  water  in  abundance,  easy  of  access,  and 
always  pure  ;  fresh,  but  not  too  cold. 

19.  Salt  should  always  be  accessible. 

20.  Do  not  allow  any  strong-flavored  food,  like  garlic, 
cabbage,  and  turnips,  to  be  eaten,  except  immediatel}'  after 
milking. 

21.  Clean  the  entire  body  of  the  cow  daily.  If  hair  in  the 
region  of  the  udder  is  not  easily  kept  clean  it  should  be 
clipped. 

22.  Do  not  use  the  milk  within  twenty  days  before  calv- 
ing, nor  for  three  to  five  days  afterwards. 

Milking. — 23.  The  milker  should  be  clean  in  all  respects; 
he  should  not  use  tobacco  ;  he  should  wash  and  dry  his 
hands  just  before  milking. 


240  DAIRYING. 

24.  The  milker  should  wear  a  clean  outer  garment,  used 
only  when  milking,  and  kept  in  a  clean  place  at  other 
times. 

25.  Brush  the  udder  and  surrounding  parts  just  before 
milking,  and  wipe  them  with  a  clean,  damp  cloth  or  sponge. 

26.  Milk  quietly,  quickly,  cleanly,  and  thoroughly.  Cows 
do  not  like  unnecessary  noise  or  delay.  Commence  milking 
at  exactly  the  same  hour  every  morning  and  evening,  and 
milk  the  cows  in  the  same  order. 

27.  Throw  away  (but  not  on  the  floor,  better  in  the  gut- 
ter) the  first  few  streams  from  each  teat  ;  this  milk  is  very 
watery  and  of  little  value,  but  it  may  injure  the  rest. 

28.  If  in  any  milking  a  part  of  the  milk  is  bloody, 
stringy  or  unnatural  in  appearance,  the  whole  mess  should 
be  rejected. 

29.  Milk  with  dry  hands;  never  allow  the  hands  to  come 
in  contact  with  the  milk. 

30.  Do  not  allow  dogs,  cats,  or  loafers  to  be  around  at 
milking-time. 

31.  If  any  accident  occurs  by  which  a  pail  full  or  partly 
full  of  milk  becomes  dirty,  do  not  try  to  remedy  this  by 
straining,  but  reject  all  this  milk  and  rinse  the  pail. 

32.  Weigh  and  record  the  milk  given  by  each  cow,  and 
take  a  sample  morning  and  night,  at  least  once  a  week,  for 
testing  by  the  fat  test. 

Care  of  Milk. — 33.  Remove  the  milk  of  every  cow  at  once 
from  the  stable  to  a  clean,  dry  room,  where  the  air  is  pure 
and  sweet.  Do  not  allow  cans  to  remain  in  stables  while 
they  are  being  filled. 

34.  Strain  the  milk  through  a  metal  gauze  and  a  flannel 
cloth  or  layer  of  cotton  as  soon  as  it  is  drawn. 

35.  Aerate  and  cool  the  milk  as  soon  as  strained.  If  an 
apparatus  for  airing  and  cooling  at  the  same  time  is  not  at 
hand,  the  milk  should  be  aired  first.  This  must  be  done  in 
pure  air,  and  it  should  then  be  cooled  to  45  degrees  if  the 
milk  is  for  shipment,  or  to  60  degrees  if  for  home  use  or 
delivery  to  a  factory. 

36.  Never  close  a  can  containing  warm  milk  which  has 
not  been  aerated. 


DAIRY    COWS.  247 

37.  If  cover  is  left  off  the  can,  a  piece  of  cloth  or  mosquito- 
netting  should  be  used  to  keep  out  insects. 

38.  If  milk  is  stored,  it  should  be  held  in  tanks  of  fresh, 
cold  water  (renewed  daily),  in  a  clean,  dry,  cold  room. 
Unless  it  is  desired  to  remove  cream,  it  should  be  stirred 
with  a  tin  stirrer  often  enough  to  prevent  forming  a  thick 
cream  layer. 

39.  Keep  the  night  milk  under  shelter  so  rain  cannot  get 
into  the  cans.  In  warm  weather  hold  it  in  a  tank  of  fresh 
cold  water. 

40.  Never  mix  fresh  warm  milk  with  that  which  has  been 
cooled. 

41.  Do  not  allow  the  milk  to  freeze. 

42.  Under  no  circumstances  should  anything  be  added  to 
milk  to  prevent  its  souring.  Cleanliness  and  cold  are  the 
only  preventives  needed. 

43.  All  milk  should  be  in  good  condition  when  delivered. 
This  may  make  it  necessary  to  deliver  twice  a  day  during 
the  hottest  weather. 

44.  When  cans  are  hauled  far  they  should  be  full,  and 
carried  in  a  spring  wagon. 

45.  In  hot  weather  cover  the  cans,  when  moved  in  a 
wagon,  with  a  clean  wet  blanket  or  canvas. 

The  Utensils. — 46.  Milk-utensils  for  farm  use  should  be 
made  of  metal  and  have  all  joints  smoothly  soldered. 
Never  allow  them  to  become  rusty  or  rough  inside. 

47.  Do  not  haul  waste  products  back  to  the  farm  in  the 
same  cans  used  for  delivering  milk.  When  this  is  unavoid- 
able, insist  that  the  skim-milk  or  whey-tank  be  kept  clean. 

4S.  Cans  used  for  the  return  of  skim-milk  or  whey  should 
be  emptied  and  cleaned  as  soon  as  they  arrive  at  the  farm. 

49.  Clean  all  dairy  utensils  by  first  thoroughly  rinsing 
them  in  warm  water;  then  clean  inside  and  out  with  a  brush 
and  hot  water  in  which  a  cleaning  material  is  dissolved; 
then  rinse  and  lastly  sterilize  by  boiling  water  or  steam. 
Use  pure  water  only. 

50.  After  cleaning,  keep  utensils,  inverted,  in  pure  air, 
and  sun  if  possible,  until  wanted  for  use. 


248 


DAIRYING. 


II.    MILK. 

PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  VARIOUS  KINDS 
OF   MILK.     (KoNiG.) 


Human 

Mare 

Buffalo 

Ass 

Cow 

."^vve 

Goat 

Reindeer* 

Sow . . 

Bitch 

El.  phaiit 

Hippopotamus 

Camel 

Llama 


No.  of 

Casein 

Af 

:n. 

Analy- 
ses. 

Water. 

Fat. 

and  Al- 
bumen. 

Sugar.      ■" 

LSh. 

107 

87.41 

378 

2.29 

6.21 

31 

50 

90.78 

1 .21 

1.99 

5 

67 

35 

8 

82.25 

7-51 

5-05 

4 

44 

75 

7 

89.64 

1.64 

2.22 

.S 

99 

51 

793 

87.17 

3.69 

3-55 

4 

88 

71 

32 

80.82 

6.86 

6.52 

4 

91 

89 

38 

8571 

4.78 

4  29 

4 

46 

76 

2 

67.20 

17.10 

"•39 

2 

82         I 

49 

20 

82.5: 

5   78 

6.:!4 

4 

^7          I 

00 

28 

7S.44 

9-57 

II. 17 

3 

09 

73 

3 

79  30 

9.10 

2-5t 

8 

59 

50 

I 

90.43 

4-51 

4 

40 

II 

3 

86.57 

307 

4.00 

5 

59 

77 

3 

86.55 

315 

3-90 

5 

60 

80 

Specific 
Grav- 
ity. 


1.0270 

1-0347 
1.0330 

1.0345 
I .0316 
1.0341 
1.0328 
1.0477 
1.0385 

1-035 
1.0313 


1 .042 
1.034 


*  Werenskiold. 

AVERAGE   ANALYSES    OF   AMERICAN   SAMPLES 
OF    DAIRY    PRODUCTS.     (Goessmann.) 


Whole 
Milk. 

Skim- 
milk. 

Butter- 
milk. 

Cream 

from 

Cooley 

Creamer. 

Butter, 

No.  of  samples 

1889 

348 

3t 

197 

25 

Water 

Fat     

86.53 
4.14 
3.20 

5-43* 
.70 

I 00 . 00 

90.52 

•32 

3.53^ 

4-83* 

.80 

91.67 

.27 

2.79 

4-47* 
.80 

73.90 
17.60 

""62 

10.89 
83 -95 
.42* 

Casein  and  albumen.. 
M 1 1  k-suear 

Ash 

4-74 

\  0.00 

100.00 

100.00 

Total  solids 

13  47 
9-33 

9.48 
9.16 

8.33 
8.06 

26.10 
8.44 

89.11 
5-16 

Solids  not  fat 

*  By  difference. 


MILK. 


249 


AVERAGE   COMPOSITION   OF   COWS'   MILK,   TTITII 
VARIATIONS.     (KoNiG.) 


Average  of 
705  Analyses 
(largely  Euro- 
pean). 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Water. . 

87.  27  per  cent 
3.68    "       " 

4.94  per  cent 
.72    " 

80.32  per  cent 
1.48    " 

':2?[^-°7P-c. 

3.23  per  cent 
.50    " 

90.22  per  cent 

Fat 

6.47    "       " 

Casein 

Albumen 

Milk-sugar 

Ash 

6  .  48  per  cent 
1 .45    " 

Total  solids.  .  .. 
Solids  not  fat. .  . 
Specific  gravity. 

100.00 

12.73  per  cent 
9.14 
1 .0313 

9.31  per  cent 

19.68  per  cent 

1 .0264 

1.0368 

C03IP0SITI0N      OF      3IORNING      AND      EVENING      MILK, 
AND     OF     MORNING,     NOON,     AND      EVENING     MILK. 

(KONIG.) 


No.  of 
Analy- 
ses. 

Water. 

Fat. 

Casein 

and  Al- 
bumens 

Milk- 
sugar. 

Ash. 

Morning  milk 

Evening     "    

139 
139 

87.70 
87.29 

88.28 
87.43 
87.  60 

3. 38 
3.58 

3.05 
3.81 
3.59 

3.6i 
3.64 

4.64 
4.81 

.67 
.69 

Morning  milk 

Noon_          "    

Evening     "    

52 
52 
52 

3.24 
3.  26 
3.  20 

4.69 

4.75 
4.87 

.74 
•75 
.74 

COMPOSITION    OP    DIFFERENT    PARTS    OF    THE 
SA3IE    3IILKINGS.     (Konig.) 


First  portion . 
Sicor.-A     •' 
Third        " 


No. 

of  An- 

Water. 

Fat. 

alyses. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

7 

80.84 

1.78 

7 

88,  !•_' 

3-34 

6 

86.29 

4.52 

Casein 
and 

Milk- 

Ash. 

.Albumen 

sugar. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

P'rct. 

2.88 

4.81 

.69 

2  94 

4.92 

.68 

2.59 

5.88 

.72 

Total 
Solids. 


Per  ct. 
10.  t6 
11.88 
13.71 


250 


DAIRYING. 


CALiCULiATlON    OF   C031P0NENTS   OP   COWS' 

MILlt. 

According  to  Vieth  the  components  of  the  non-fatty  milk 
solids  will  stand  in  the  ratio  to  one  another  of  about 


10 


2 

ash. 


:  13 

for         casein  and  albumen     :     milk  sugar 

If  the  solids  not  fat  in  a  sample  of  milk  arc  g  per  cent, 
the  per  cent  of  casein  and  albumen  in  the  same  will  be 
approximately  /§  X  lo  =  3.60  per  cent ;  sugar,  ^"5X13=  4-68 
per  cent;  and  ash,  ^^^  X  2  =  .72  per  cent. 

TABLE  SHOAVING  RELATION  OF  FAT  TO  CASEIN 
AND  OTHER    SOLIDS.      (Cooke  ) 


Total  Solids. 

Fat. 

Casein  and 
Albumen. 

Milk-sugar 
and  Ash, 

Solids 
not  Fat. 

Per  Cent, 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent, 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

11.00 

3-07 

2,92 

5.01 

7.93 

11.50 

3-29 

3,00 

5-21 

8.21 

12.00 

3-50 

3.07 

5  43 

8.50 

12.50 

3-75 

3-19 

5  56 

8.75 

13.00 

3-99 

330 

5-7' 

9.01 

'3.50 

4-34 

3-44 

5-72 

9.16 

14.00 

4.68 

3  57 

5-75 

932 

^4.50 

4-93 

3-79 

5,68 

9-47 

15.00 

5-38 

4.00 

5.62 

9.62 

15.50 

5  69 

4-15 

5.66 

9,81 

16,00 

6.00 

4  30 

5-70 

10.00 

This  table,  which  is  summarized  from  the  analyses  of 
about  2400  American  samples  of  milk,  shows  that  while  the 
percentage  of  fat  varies  from  3.07  to  6  per  cent,  or  nearly 
three  per  cent,  that  of  casein  varies  only  from  2.92  to  4.3- 
per  cent,  less  than  one  and  one  half  per  cent.  It  also 
shows  that  a  higher  percentage  of  fat  is  always  accom- 
panied by  a  higher  percentage  of  casein.  Milk  sugar  anc^ 
ash  increase  but  little  as  the  milk  grows  richer. 


JtflLK. 


251 


FERTILIZING     1NGKI]DIF:XTS     IN     DAIRY     PROD 

UCTS. 

Averag^e  of  American  Analyse.*?.    (Cooke  and  Hills.) 


Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric 
Acid. 

Potash. 

Value  per 
Ton. 

Whole  milk 

Skim-milk 

Cream 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

.53^ 
•56 
.40 
.48 

•15 
.  12 

3^93 

.19^ 

.20 

•15 

.17 

.14 

.04 

.60 

.175^ 

.185 

.130 

.158 

.181 

.036 

.120 

5^  2.17 

2.31 

.66 

i.qS 

.84 

•49 

14.19 

Butter 

Cheese     

C03IP0SITI0X   OF   COL.OSTRU3I.     (Ko  ig.) 


No.  of 
Anal- 
yses. 

II 

I 

I 

42 

Water. 

77-9 
64. 1 
70.1 
74.6 

Casein. 

4.9 

5-2 

7.6 
4.0 

Albu- 
men. 

3-4 

3-2 

8.0 
13-6 

Butter- 
fat. 

8.3 

24-5 

9-5 

3-6 

Milk- 
sugar. 

4.6 
3-9 

2-7 

Ash. 

Ewe 

Goat   

Sow 

•9 
3-0 

•9 
1.6 

Cow 

C03IP0SITI0X    OF    ASH   OF   COAVS'   MILK   AND 

COLOSTRL3I. 

Cows'  Milk. 

Total  ash 7  per  cent 

100  parts  of  ash  will  contain  : 

Potash 24 

Soda 6 

Lime 23 

Phosphoric  acid 28 

Chlorin 13 


Colostruo* 
1.6  per  cent 


35 
«3 


252  DAIRYING. 

A   CHAPTER   ON    MILK   TESTING.* 

The  Babcock  milk  test  is  the  quick  and  simple  method 
of  determining  the  fat  content  of  milk  which  has  been 
most  generally  adopted  in  this  country.  The  test  was  in- 
vented by  Dr.  S.  M.  Babcock,  of  Wisconsin  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  and  was  first  published  in  July,  i8go. 
The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  method: 

A  known  quantity  of  milk  (17.6  cubic  centimeters,  or 
about  f  of  an  ounce)  is  pipetted  off  into  a  graduated  test- 
bottle;  17.5  cc.  of  commercial  sulfuric  acid,  of  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.S2  to  1.S3,  is  then  measured  out  by  means  of 
a  graduated  cylinder  or  an  automatic  pipette,  and  added  to 
the  milk.  The  two  fluids  are  mixed,  and  when  the  curd  is 
dissolved,  the  test-bottles  are  placed  in  a  centrifugal  ma- 
chine and  whirled  for  4  minutes  at  a  rate  of  800-1200  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  the  small  hand-machines  on  the  market 
requiring  the  higher  number  of  revolutions.  Boiling  hot 
water  is  then  filled  into  the  bottles,  by  which  means  the 
liquid  fat  is  brought  into  the  narrow  graduated  neck  of  the 
bottles  ;  after  an  additional  whirling  of  the  bottles  for  a 
minute,  the  length  of  the  column  of  fat  is  read  off  in  per 
cent. 

The  whole  process  of  testing  a  sample  of  milk  according 
to  this  method  will  take  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
when  a  little  skill  in  manipulation  has  been  reached. 

The  various  dealers  in  dairy  implements  have  placed 
Babcock  machines  on  the  maiket  in  sizes  fiom  4-  to  60- 
bottle  machines,  and  supply  the  necessary  outfit,  as  test- 
bottles,  pipettes,  graduates,  and  sulfuric  acid.  There  are 
at  present  three  different  types  of  machines:  hand-machines 
(friction  or  cog-wheel  machines;  the  latter  ones  are  to  be 
preferred,  and  have  now  practically  replaced  the  friction 
machines),  steam  turbine,  and  belt-power  machines.  The 
Facile,  Twentieth  Century,  and  Agos    Babcock   testers  are 

*  The  subject  of  milk  testing  is  treated  exhaustively,  and  detailed  direc- 
tions for  using  the  Babcock  test  are  given  in  Farrington-Woll,  Testing 
Milk  and  its  Products,  Menduta  Book  Co.,  Madison,  Wis.,  21st  Editiun, 
1912. 


MILK.  253 

the  Best  hand-machines  on  the  market  at  the  present  time. 
Steam  turbine  machines  are  to  be  recommended  for  factory 
use;  they  should  always  be  provided  with  a  speed  indicator 
so  as  to  avoid  too  slow  or  too  rapid  whirling;  several  acci- 
dents have  happened  where  the  bottles  were  unable  to 
stand  the  pressure  caused  by  too  rapid  whirling.  In  many 
turbine  testers  the  bottles  are  heated  to  about  200°  F.,  and 
the  bottles  should  in  case  of  such  machines  be  left  to  cool 
to  about  150°  F.  before  results  are  read  off.  Readings 
taken  at  temperatures  higher  than  this  come  too  high,  viz., 
in  extreme  cases,  from  .2  to  .3  per  cent  too  high  in  case  of 
new  milk,  and  toward  one  per  cent  too  high  in  case  of 
cream.     (See  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Report  for  18S9-1900.) 

In  Sharpies'  Russian  Babcock  Tester  (a  steam-turbine  test 
manufactured  by  the  Dairy  Specialty  Co.,  West  Chester,  I'a  )  the 
bottles  used  can  be  filled  with  hot  water  while  the  machine  is 
in  motion  ;  the  test  bottles  used  are  arranged  for  half  the 
usual  quantity  of  milk. 

Points  to  be  watched  in  making  tests  by  the  Labcock 
method  : 

The  strength  of  the  acid  used  is  very  important;  its 
specific  gravity  should  not  go  belov/  1.82  or  above  1.84  ;  if 
the  acid  is  somewhat  too  strong  less  may  be  taken,  and  a 
Kttle  mere  if  it  is  rather  weak.  It  is,  however,  not  possible 
to  make  a  satisfactory  test  with  acid  of  a  specific  gravity 
below  1.82.  Keep  the  acid  bottle  corked  when  not  in  use, 
as  the  acid  will  otherwise  take  up  moisture  from  the  air. 

In  testing  separator  skim-milk  use  a  somewhat  larger 
quantity  ol  acid  than  usual,  and  whirl  5  to  6  minutes;  this 
will  insure  a  nearly  perfect  separation  of  all  the  fat  present 
in  such  milks.  The  two-necked  so-called  Ohlsson  bottles 
are  recommended  for  testing  separator  skim-milk  ;  the 
results  should  be  increased  by  .05  per  cent  with  these  as 
with  other  test  bottles,  in  testing  separator  skim-milk. 

The  centrifugal  machine  should  run  at  a  rate  of  about 
800  to  1000  revolutions  per  minute;  if  its  diameter  is  small, 
whirl  1000  or  1200. 

Soft  or   rain-water  is  used    in    filling   up  the  bottle  after 


254  DAIRYING. 

boiling,  or  hard  water  may  be  used  if  some  drops  of  sulfuric 
acid  have  Dcen  aaded  to  it  before  the  boiling. 

In  adding  the  acid  the  bottle  should  be  held  at  an  angle, 
so  as  to  cause  the  acid  to  follow  the  inside  of  the  wall.  Mix 
the  milk  r.rd  acid  at  once,  or  within  a  short  time,  and  pro- 
ceed with  the  test  without  delay. 

Read  off  results  before  the  fat  begins  to  crystallize  If 
many  tests  are  made  at  a  time,  and  the  room  is  cold,  place 
the  bottles  in  a  pail  with  water  of  140-150'^  and  keep  them  warm 
until  results  are  rccordc  1. 

Application  of  Babcock's  Test. — The  method  maybe  used 
to  advantage  in  determining  the  fat  content  of  full  milk, 
skim-milk,  buttermilk,  whey,  cream,  condensed  milk,  and 
cheese.  It  cannot  be  recommended  for  the  estimation  of 
fat  in  butter,  since  the  error  of  analysis  in  this  case  is  too 
large.  In  testing  separator  skim-milk,  buttermilk,  and  whey 
by  this  method,  no  reading  should  be  taken  lower  than  one- 
tenth  of  one  per  cent.  If  only  a  small  drop  or  two  of  liquid 
fat  appears  in  the  neck  of  the  bottles  after  finished  whirling 
the  result  is  therefore  to  be  put  down  as  .  i  per  cent,  instead 
of  estimates  of  .05,  and  still  lower,  which  are  sometimes 
made.      (See  Bull.  No.  52,  Wis.  Experiment  Station.) 

Lactometer. — The  Ouevenne  lactometer,  with  the  ther- 
mometer tube  extending  into  the  narrow  stem  of  the  instru- 
ment, is  recommended  for  dairy  work.  In  the  N.  Y.  Hoard 
of  Health  lactometer,  often  used,  the  scale  is  divided  into 
120  divisions,  the  mark  100  corresponding  to  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.029,  ^"d  that  of  120  to  a  specific  gravity  of 
1.034S.  These  lactometer  degrees  can  be  converted  into 
Quevenne  lactometer  degrees  by  multiplying  by  .29.  The 
following  table  gives  the  readings  of  the  two  scales  be- 
tween 60  and  120  on  the  Board  of  Health  lactometer: 


MILK. 


255 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  QUE\  ENXE  LACTOMETER 
DEGREES  CORRESPONDING  TO  THE  SCALE  OF 
LACT03IETERS  GRADUATED  FROM   60  TO   lliO. 


N.  V.  Bd. 

of  Health 

Scale. 

Quevenne 

Scale. 

N.  V.  Bd. 

of  Health 

Scale. 

Quevenne 

Scale. 

N.  Y.  Bd. 
of  Health 

Scale. 

Quevenne 
Scale. 

60 

17.4 

81 

23-5 

101 

293 

61 

17-7 

82 

23.8 

102 

29.6 

62 

18 

83 

24.1 

103 

29.9 

63 

18.3 

84 

24.4 

104 

30.2 

64 

i3.6 

85 

24.6 

105 

30 -5 

65 

18.8 

?6 

24.9 

106 

307 

66 

ig.i 

87 

25.2 

T07 

31 

67 

19.4 

88 

25-5 

108 

31-3 

68 

19.7 

89 

25.8 

109 

31.6 

6g 

20 

90 

26. 1 

no 

319 

70 

29-3 

91 

26.4 

III 

32.2 

71 

20.6 

92 

26.7 

112 

32-.'-, 

72 

20.9 

93 

27 

113 

32.8 

73 

21.2 

94 

27  3 

114 

33-1 

74 

21-5 

95 

27.6 

1^5 

33  4 

75 

21.7 

96 

27.8 

116 

33-6 

76 

22 

97 

28.1 

117 

33  9 

77 

22.3 

98 

28.4 

118 

34-2 

78 

22.6 

99 

28.7 

119 

34-5 

79 

22  .9 

100 

29 

120 

34-8 

80 

23.  2 

In  taking  the  specific  gravity  of  milk  try  means  of  a  lac- 
tometer, the  temperature  of  the  milk  should  not  vary  more 
than  10''  either  way  from  60°  F.  The  following  tables 
show  the  proper  corrections  for  temperature  to  be  made,  if 
the  milk  was  either  warmer  or  colder  than  60^  F.,  the  tem- 
perature to  which  the  specific  gravities  of  all  liquids  are 
usually  referred. 

In  practical  work  sufficiently  accurate  corrections  for  tem- 
perature may  generally  be  made  by  adding  .1  to  the  lacto- 
meter reading  for  each  degree  above  60'  F. ,  and  by  subtract- 
ing .1  for  each  degree  below  60°;  e.g.,  if  the  reading  at  64° 
is  29.5,  it  will  be  about  29.5  +  .4  =  29.9  at  60';  if  34.0  at  52°, 
it  will  be  -'bou^  3/0  -  .8  =  33.2  at  6o^  By  reference  to  the 
following  table  we  ^no  it  is  more  correctly  33.0. 


250 


DAIRYING. 


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MILK. 


257 


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258  DAIRYING. 

CALCULATION   OF   TOTAL   SOLIDS   OP   MILK. 

The  relation  existing  between  the  various  components  of 
the  milk  is  such  as  to  make  possible  the  calculation  of  the 
percentage  of  solids  not  fat,  and  total  solids,  in  a  sample  of 
milk  when  the  fat-content  and  the  specific  gravity  (lactom- 
eter reading)  of  the  milk  are  known.  Several  formulas 
have  been  worked  out  by  chemists  in  different  parts  of  the 
world,  by  the  application  of  which  the  total  solids  may  be 
calculated  from  the  percentage  of  fat  and  the  specific  grav- 
ity of  the  milk.  We  give  here  Babcock's  formula,  pub- 
lished in  the  twelfth  report  of  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station. 

(lOOs  —  sf  \ 
^  —  i|  X  (loo  —  /)  2.5, 
100  —   I.0753J/  /  ^  y  /       -" 

where  s  =  specific  gravity  of  the  milk  and/  per  cent  of  fat 

found.      When  s  and /"are  known  the  per  cent  of  solids  not 

fat  in  the  milk  may  be  calculated  by  means  of  this  formula. 

ill  order  to  avoid  making  the  lengthy  calculations  in  every 

case,  tables  for  solids  not  fat  are  given   on  the  following 

pages;  results   obtained   by  the    formula    given    above,  or 

by  means  of  the  ft)llowing  tables,  will  come  within  a  couple 

of    tenths    from    the    actual    percentages    present,    when 

reasonable  care   is  taken    in  the  determinations  of  fat  and 

specific  gravity  (or  lactometer  reading). 

Short  formulas .     The   following   formulas  for  solids  not 

fat  and  for  total  solids  are  derived  from  the  data  given   in 

the   following   tables.      L  =  lactometer   reading    at    60^   F. 

(specific    gravity  X  1000—  1000);    /*  =  per   cent  of   fat   in 

milk. 

Solids  not  fat  = \-   .if 

4 

Total  solids  =  — h  1.2/. 
4 


MILK.  259 

Rule  :  To  find  per  cent  of  solids  not  fat,  add  t7uo  tenths  of 
the  per  cent  of  fat  to  one  fourth  of  the  lactometer  reading. 

To  find  per  cent  of  total  solids,  add  one  and  two  tenths  tinia 
the  per  cent  of  fat  to  one  fourth  of  the  lactometer  reading. 

Results  obtained  by  using  the  short  formulas  will  agree 
very  closely  with  those  derived  from  the  general  formula, 
or  from  the  tables  published  below,  and  may  be  safely 
relied  upon  in  practical  work. 

The  tables  cover  a  range  of  .o  to  6.0  per  cent  of  fat, 
and  from  26  to  36  lactometer  reading.  If  intermediate 
values  for  /"and  L  are  at  hand,  corrections  in  the  percent 
of  solids  not  fat  found  may  easily  be  made,  with  .02  per 
cent  for  every  tenth  of  one  per  cent  of  fat,  and  .25  per 
cent  for  every  lactometer  degree.  Example :  Given  y  = 
3.67  per  cent  and  L  =  32.5.  By  referring  to  the  table  we 
find  that  f  =■  3.6  and  Z  =  32  will  give  8.73  per  cent  of 
solids  not  fat;  correction  for  fat-conient,  .01  per  cent  (3.67 
being  nearer  3.65  than  3.70),  and  for  lactometer  reading. 
12  per  cent;  corrected  per  cent  solids  not  fat,  8.86. 


260 


DAIRYING. 


TABLE    SHOWING    PER    CENT    OF   TOTAL   SOLIDS   IN 

MILK. 

Corresponding  to   Quevenne  Lactometer  Readings  and  Per 
Cent  of  Fat.       (Babcock,  modified  by  Leach.) 


Per 
Ct. 

Lactometer  Reading  at  60°  Fahrenheit.    ^-^ 

Per 
Ct. 

of 

of 

Fat 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

Fat 

CO 

6. 75 

7.00 

7.25 

7.50 

7.75 

8.00 

8.25 

8.50 

8.75 

9.00 

0.0 

O.  I 

6.87 

7.12 

7.37 

7.62 

7.87 

8.12 

8.37 

8.62 

8.87 

9. 12 

0. 1 

0^2 

6.99 

7.24 

7.49 

7.74 

7.99 

8.24 

8.49 

8.74 

8.99 

9.24 

0.2 

0.3 

7-II 

7.36 

7.61 

7.86 

8. II 

8.36 

8.61 

8.86 

9. II 

9.36 

0.3 

0.4 

7-23 

7.48 

7.73 

7.98 

8.23 

8.48 

8.73 

8.98 

9.23 

9.48 

0.4 

0.5 

7-35 

7.60 

7.85 

8. 10 

8.35 

8.60 

8.85 

9. 10 

9.35 

9.60 

0.5 

0.6 

7.47 

7.72 

7.97 

8.22 

8.47 

8.72 

8.97 

9.  22 

9-47 

9.72 

0.6 

0.7 

7-59 

7.84 

8.09 

8.34 

8.59 

8.84 

9.09 

9.34 

9.59 

9.84 

0.7 

0.8 

7-71 

7.96 

8.21 

8.46 

8.71 

8.96 

9.  21 

9.46 

9.71 

9.96 

0.8 

0.9 

7.83 

8.08 

8.33 

8.58 

8.83 

9.08 

9.33 

9.58 

9.83 

10.08 

0.9 

I.O 

7-95 

8.20 

8.45 

8.70 

8.95 

9.20 

9.45 

9.70 

9-95 

10.20 

1.0 

I.l 

8.07 

8.32 

8.57 

8.82 

9.07 

9.32 

9.57 

9.82 

10.07 

10.32 

1. 1 

1.2 

8.19 

8.44 

8.69 

8.94 

9.19 

9.44 

9.69 

9.94 

10. 19 

10.44 

1.2 

1.3 

8.31 

8.56 

8.81 

9.06 

9-31 

9.56 

9.81 

10.06 

10.31 

10.56 

1.3 

1.4 

8.43 

8.68 

8.93 

9.18 

9.43 

9.68 

9-93 

10,18 

10.43 

10.68 

1.4 

i.S 

8. 55 

8.80 

9.05 

9.30 

9.55 

9.80 

10.05 

10.30 

10.55 

10.80 

I.S 

1.6 

8.67 

8.92 

9-17 

9.42 

9.67 

9.92 

10. 17 

10.42 

10.67 

10.92 

1.6 

1.7 

8.79 

9.04 

9.29 

9.54 

9.79 

10.04 

10.29 

10.54 

10.79 

11.04 

1.7 

1.8 

8.91 

9.  16 

9.41 

9.66 

9.91 

ID.  16 

10.41 

10.66 

10.91 

II. 17 

1.8 

1.9 

9.03 

9.28 

9.53 

9.78 

10.03 

10.28 

10. 55 

10.78 

11.04 

11.29 

1.9 

i 

2.0 

2.0 

9.15 

9.40 

9.6s 

9.90 

10.15 

10.40 

10.66 

10.91 

II.  16 

It. 41 

2.1 

9.27 

9-52 

9.77 

10.02 

10.27 

10.52 

10.78 

11.03 

11.28 

11-53 

2. 1 

2.2 

9-39 

9.64 

9.89 

10.  14 

10.39 

10.64 

10.90 

II. 15 

II  .40 

11.65 

2.2 

2.3 

951 

9.76 

10.01 

10.26 

10.51 

10    76 

11.02 

11.27 

11.52 

11.77 

2.3 

2.4 

9  63 

9.88 

10.  13 

10.38 

10.63 

10.88 

II.  14 

11.39 

11.64 

11.89 

2.4 

2.5 

9.75 

10.00 

10.25 

10.50 

10.75 

ir  .00 

11.26 

II. 51 

11.76 

12.01 

2.S 

2.6 

9.87 

10.  12 

10.37 

10.62 

10.87 

II.  12 

11.38 

11.63 

11.88 

12.13 

2.6 

2.7 

9.99 

10.  24 

10.49 

10.74 

10.99 

11.24 

11.50 

11.75 

12.00 

12.25 

2.7 

2.8 

10.  II 

10.36 

10.61 

10.86 

II .  11 

11.37 

11.62 

11.87 

12.12 

12.37 

2.8 

2.9 

10.23 

10.48 

10.73 

10.98 

11.23 

11.49 

11.74 

11.99 

12.24 

12.49 

2.9 

30 

10.35 

10.60 

10.8s 

II .  10 

11.36 

II. 61 

11.86 

12.  II 

12.36 

12.61 

3.0 

3. 1 

10.47 

10.72 

10.97 

11.23 

11.48 

11.73 

11.98 

12.23 

12.48 

12.74 

3.1 

3.2 

10.59 

10.84 

11.09 

ir.35 

II  .60 

11.85 

12. 10 

12.35 

12.61 

12.86 

3.2 

3.3 

10.71 

10.96 

II .  22 

11.47 

II  .72 

11.97 

12.  22 

12.48 

12.73 

12.98 

3-3 

3.4 

10.83 

11.09, 

11.34 

11.59 

11.84 

12.09 

12.34 

12.60 

12.85 

13-10 

3.4 

3-5 

10.95 

IT. 21 

11.46 

II. 71 

11.96 

12.21 

12.46 

12.72 

12.97 

13.22 

3.S 

3.6 

11.08 

11.33 

11.58 

11.83 

12.08 

12.33 

12.58 

12.84 

13.09 

13.34 

3.6 

3.7 

11.20 

11.45 

II  .70 

11.95 

12.  20 

12.45 

12.70 

12.96 

13.21 

13.46 

3.7 

3.8 

11.32 

11.57 

11.82 

12.07 

12.32 

12.57 

12.82 

13.08 

13.33 

13.58 

3.8 

3.9 

11.44 

II  .69 

11.94, 

12. 19 

12.44 

12.69 

12.94 

13.20 

13.45 

13.70 

3.9 

4.0 

11.56 

II. 81 

12.06 

12.31 

12.56 

12.81 

13.06 

13.32 

13.57 

13.83 

4.0 

41 

11.68 

11.93 

12. 18 

12.43; 

12.68 

12.93 

13.18 

13-44 

13.69 

13-95 

4-1 

4.2 

11.80 

12.05 

12.30  12.55 

12.80 

1305 

13.31 

13.56 

13.82 

14.07 

4-2 

4-3 

II  .92 

12.  17 

12.42  12.67 

T2.92 

1318 

13.43 

13.68 

13.94 

14.19 

4.3 

4-4 

12.04 

12.29   12.54   I2.79I 

13.04 

13.30 

13.55I 

13 .80 

14.06 

14-31 

4.4 

:milk. 


261 


TABLE    FOR    SOJ.IDS— (Continued). 


Per 

Ct. 

Lactometer  Reading  at  6o°  Fahrenheit     . 

l-'er 

rt, 

of 

of 

Fat 

27 

28 

29 

30        31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

Fat 

4-5 

12.  l6 

12.41 

12.66 

12.91  13. 16 

13.42 

13.67 

13.92 

14.  18 

14-43 

4.'> 

4.6 

12.28 

12.53 

12.78 

13.03  13.28 

13.54 

13.79 

14.04 

14.30 

14.55 

4.6 

4-7 

12.40 

12.65 

12.90 

13.15  13.40 

13.66 

13.91 

14.  16 

14.42 

14.67 

4-7 

4.8 

12.52 

12.77 

13.02 

13.27  13.52 

13.78 

14.03 

14.28 

14-54 

14-79 

4.8 

4-9 

12.64 

12.89 

13.14 

13.39  13.64 

13.90 

14-15 

14.40 

14.66 

14.91 

4-9 

5-0 

12.76 

13.01 

13.26 

13.51  13.76 

14.02 

14.27 

14.52 

14.78 

15.03 

5.0 

S.I 

12.88 

13.13 

13.38 

13-63  13.89 

14.14 

14.39 

14.64 

14-90 

15-15 

5-1 

5.2 

13.00 

13.25 

13.50 

13-75 

14.01 

14.26 

14-51 

14.76 

15.02 

15.27 

5.2 

5-3 

13. 12 

13.37 

13.62 

13.87 

14-13 

14.38 

14-63 

14.88 

15.14 

15.39 

5.3 

S.4 

13.24 

13.49 

13.74 

14.00 

14-25 

14.50 

14.76 

15.01 

15.26 

15-51 

5.4 

5.5 

13.36 

13.61 

13.86 

14.  12 

14-37 

14.62 

14.88 

15-13 

15.38 

15-63 

5.. 5 

5.t) 

13.48 

13.73 

13.99 

14.24 

14.49 

14-75 

15.00 

IS. 25 

15.50 

15.75 

5-6 

5.7 

13.60 

13.85 

14.  II  14.36  14.61 

14.87 

15.12 

15.37 

15-62 

15.87 

5.7 

5.« 

13.72 

13.97 

14. 22  14.48 

14.74 

14.99 

15.24 

15.49 

15.74 

15.99 

5.8 

5-9 

13.84 

14.  10 

14.35  14.60 

14.86 

IS. II 

15.36 

15.61 

15.86 

16. 12 

5.9 

6.0 

13   06 

14.22 

14.47  14.72114.98 

15-23 

15-48 

15-7.-^ 

1 5 .  98 

16.24 

6.0 

Correction  for  Tenths  of  Lactofnetcr  Jveadings. 


Difference. 

.25 

.26 

.  I 

•03 

.03 

2 

•05 

.05 

3 

.08 

.08 

4 

.10 

.10 

5 

•13 

•»3 

6 

•  15 

.16 

7 

.18 

.18 

8 

.20 

.21 

9 

•23 

•23 

CALiCULATIOX  OF  SP.  GK,  OF  MILK  SOLIDS. 

(Fleischmann.) 

t 


Sp.  gr.  of  milk  solids 


/  — 


lOOT    —    100 


where  s  =  sp.  gr.  of  milk,  t  =  solids  of  milk.  In  pure 
whole  milk  6"  varies  but  little,  viz.,  between  1.25  and  1.34. 
When  6"  comes  above  1.34,  the  milk  is  suspicious  ;  if  above 
1.40,  it  has  been  skimmed  (see  page  313). 


262 


DAIRYING. 


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MILK. 


263 


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264  DAIRYING. 

GOVERNMENT     STANDARDS     OF     PURITY     FOR     MILK 
AND   ITS  PRODUCTS.* 

A.— 31ilk.s. 

1.  Milk  is  the  fresh,  clean,  lacteal  secretion  obtained  by  the 
complete  milking  of  one  or  more  healthy  cows,  properly  fed  and 
kept,  excluding  that  obtained  within  fifteen  days  before  and 
ten  days  after  calving,  and  contains  not  less  than  eight  and 
one-half  (8.5)  per  cent  of  solids  not  fat,  and  not  less  than  three 
and  one-quarter  (3.25)  per  cent  of  milk-fat. 

2.  Blended  milk  is  milk  modified  in  its  composition  so  as  to 
have  a  definite  and  stated  percentage  of  one  or  more  of  its  con- 
stituents. 

3.  Skim  milk  is  milk  from  which  a  part  or  all  of  the  cream  has 
been  removed,  and  contains  nnt  less  than  nine  and  one-quarter 
(9.25)  per  cent  of  milk  solids. 

4.  Pasteurized  milk  is  milk  that  has  been  heated  below  boiling, 
but  sufficiently  to  kill  most  of  the  active  organisms  present,  and 
immediately  cooled  to  50°  Fahr.  or  lower. 

5.  Sterilized  milk  is  milk  that  has  been  heated  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  boiling  water  or  higher  for  a  length  of  time  sufficient  to 
kill  all  organisms  present. 

6.  Condensed  milk,  evaporated  milk,  is  milk  from  which  a 
considerable  portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated,  and  contains 
not  less  than  twenty-eight  (28)  per  cent  of  milk  solids,  of  which 
not  less  than  twenty-seven  and  five-tenths  (27.5)  per  cent  is 
milk-fat. 

7.  Sweetened  condensed  milk  is  milk  from  which  a  considerable 
portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated  and  to  which  sugar  (sucrose) 
has  been  added,  and  contains  not  less  than  twenty-eight  (28) 
per  cent  of  milk  solids,  of  which  not  less  than  twenty-seven  and 
five-tenths  (27.5)   per  cent  is  milk-fat. 

8.  Condensed  skim  milk  is  skim  milk  from  which  a  considerable 
portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated. 

9.  Buttermilk  is  the  product  that  remains  when  butter  is  re- 
moved from  milk  or  cream  in  the  process  of  churning. 

*  Proclaimed  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  June  26.  1906.  (Circ. 
No.  19,  Office  oi  the  Secretary,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


MILK.  265 

lo.  Goat's  milk,  ewe's  milk,  ct  cetera,  are  the  fresh,  clean, 
lacteal  secretions,  free  from  colostrum,  obtained  by  the  complete 
milking  of  healthy  animals  other  than  cows,  properly  fed  and 
kept,  and  conform  in  name  to  the  species  of  animal  from  which 
they  are  obtained. 

B. — Cream. 

1.  Cream  is  that  portion  of  milk  rich  in  milk-fat,  which  rises 
to  the  surface  of  milk  on  standing,  or  is  separated  from  it  by 
centrifugal  force,  is  fresh  and  clean,  and  contains  not  less  than 
eighteen  (i8)  per  cent  of  milk-fat. 

2.  Evaporated  cream,  clotted  cream,  is  cream  from  which  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated. 

C— Milk-Fat   or   Butter-Fat. 

I.  Milk- fat,  butter- fat,  is  the  fat  of  milk  and  has  a  Reichert- 
Meissl   number   not   less   than   twenty-four   (24)    and  a   specific 


gravity  not  less  than  0.905 


/40^\ 

V4o°  c.; 


D.— Butter. 

1.  Butter  is  the  clean,  non-rancid  product  made  by  gathering 
in  any  manner  the  fat  of  fresh  or  ripened  milk  or  cream  into  a 
mass,  which  also  contains  a  small  portion  of  the  other  milk  con- 
stituents, with  or  without  salt,  and  contains  not  less  than  eighty- 
two  and  five-tenths  (82.5)  per  cent  of  milk-fat.  By  acts  of 
Congress  approved  August  2,  1886,  and  May  9,  1902,  butter 
may  also  contain  added  coloring-matter. 

2.  Renovated  butter,  process  butter,  is  the  product  made  by 
melting  butter  and  reworking,  without  the  addition  or  use  of 
chemicals  or  any  substances  except  milk,  cream,  or  salt,  and 
contains  not  more  than  sixteen  (16)  per  cent  of  water  and  at 
least  eighty-two  and  five-tenths  (82.5)  per  cent  of  milk-fat. 

E. — Cheese, 

I.  Cheese  is  the  sound,  solid,  and  ripened  product  made  from 
milk  or  cream  by  coagulating  the  casein  thereof  with  rennet  or 
lactic  acid,   with  or  without  the  addition  of  ripening  ferments 


266  DAIRYING. 

and  seasoning,  and  contains,  in  the  water-free  substance,  not 
less  than  fifty  (50)  per  cent  of  milk-fat.  By  act  of  Congress, 
approved  June  6,  1896,  cheese  may  also  contain  added  coloring- 
matter. 

2.  SkijH  milk  cheese  is  the  sound,  solid,  and  ripened  product 
made  from  skim  milk  by  coagulating  the  casein  thereof  with 
rennet  or  lactic  acid,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  ripening 
ferments  and  seasoning. 

3.  Goat's  milk  cheese,  cice's  milk  cheese,  et  cetera,  are  the  sound 
ripened  products  made  from  the  milks  of  the  animals  specified 
by  coagulating  the  casein  thereof  with  rennet  or  lactic  acid, 
with  or  without  the  addition  of  ripening  ferments  and  season- 
ing. 

F. — Ice   Creams. 

1.  Jce  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream  and  sugar, 
with  or  without  a  natural  flavoring,  and  contains  not  less  than 
fourteen  (14)  per  cent  of  milk-fat. 

2.  Fruit  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream, 
sugar,  and  sound,  clean,  mature  fruits,  and  contains  not  less  than 
twelve  (12)  per  cent  of  milk-fat. 

3.  Nut  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream,  sugar, 
and  sound,  non-rancid  nuts,  and  contains  not  less  than  twelve  (12) 
per  cent  of  milk-fat. 

G. — Miscellaneous  3Iilk  Products. 

1.  Whey  is  the  product  remaining  after  the  removal  of  fat  and 
casein  from  milk  in  the  process  of  cheese-making. 

2.  Kumiss  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic  fermentation 
of  mare's  or  cow's  milk. 


MILK.  267 

ADULTERATION  OF  MILK? 

The  legal  standards  adopted  in  the  different  States  of  the 
Union  determine  the  limits  for  fat  or  solids,  below  which 
the  milk  offered  for  sale  must  not  fall.  Where  no  control 
sample  can  be  taken  of  a  suspected  sample  of  milk,  calcula- 
tions of  the  extent  of  the  adulteration  practised  are  made 
on  basis  of  the  legal  standard  in  each  State.  Whenever 
possible,  a  control  sample  should  be  secured  on  the  prem- 
ises of  the  suspected  party,  and  subjected  to  analysis.  If 
the  control  sample  contains  appreciably  less  fat  or  solids 
not  fat  than  did  the  suspected  sample,  the  latter  was 
skimmed  or  watered,  or  both  skimmed  and  watered.* 

Skimming. — I.  If  a  sample  is  skimmed,  the  following  for- 
mula will  give  the  number  of  pounds  of  fat  abstracted  from 
loo  lbs.  of  milk  : 

Fat  abstracted  ~  x  =  legal  standard  for  fat  —/,  .     (I) 

/"being  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  suspected  sample. 

In  this  and  following  formulas  the  percentages  found  in 
the  control  samples,  if  such  are  at  hand,  are  always  to  be 
substituted  for  the  legal  standards. 

II.   The  following  formula  will  give  the  per  ce.it  of  fat 

abstracted,  calculated  on  the  total  quantity  of  fat  originally 

found  in  the  milk: 

/X  lOO 

:r  =  ICO  —  , — — - — -— -— (II) 

leg.  stand,  for  fat 

Watering. — I.   If  a   sample  is  watered,   the  calculations 

are   most   conveniently  based   on   the   percentage  of   solids 

not  fat  in  the  milk: 

Per  cent  extraneous  water  in  milk 

J  Xioo 

=  ;r.  =  100-- -r—: rr-, —T^l^       '       ^^^^' 

leg,  stand,  for  solids  not  fat 

s  being  ine    per  cent    of    solids    not     fat     in   the   suspected 
sample. 

Example. — A  sample  contains  8.5  per  cent  of  solids  not 
fat  ;  if  the  legal  standard  for   solids  not  fat  be  9  per  cent, 

8.5   X    100  ^  .,,        •  i_  r 

100 =  5.6,  will  give  the  per  cent  of  extraneous 

q 

water  in  the  suspected  sample  of  milk. 

*  ^"ce  Farringlon-Wull,  Testing  Milk  and  its  Products,  22d  Ed., 
pp.  111-117. 


2G8  DAIIiYING. 

II.   Watering  of  milk  may  also  be  expressed   in  per  cent 
of  water  added  to  the  original  milk,  by  formula  IV  : 


Per  cent  water  added  to  original  milk 

lOO  X  leg.  stand,  for  solids  not  fat 


s 


ICO.       (IV) 


T      u  1        •  V  loo  X  9 

In  the  example  given  above,  — loo  =  5.9  per  cent 

8.5 
of  water  was  added  to  the  original  milk. 

Waterinc,  AM)  Skimminh;.  — If  a  sample  has  been  both 
watered  and  skimmed,  the  extent  of  watering  is  ascertained 
by  means  of  formula  III  ;  and  the  fat  abstracted  found  ac- 
cording to  the  following  formula  : 

Per  cent  fat  abstracted 

,  ^      ^         leg.  stand,  for  solids  not  fat 

=  jt:  =  leg. stand. for  fat X/.     (V) 

s 

Exafnple. — A  sample  of  milk  contains   2.4  per  cent  of  fat 

and  8.1  per  cent  solids  not  fat;  then 

8.1  X  100 

extraneous  water  in  milk   =  100 =  10  per  cent; 

9 

V                J                                             9  X  2.4 
lat  abstracted  =      3  —  ^— ^  =  ,33  per  cent. 

o.  I 

100  lbs.  of  the  milk  contained  10  lbs.  of  extraneous  water 
and  .33  lb.  of  fai  had  been  skimmed  from  it. 


RANGES    OF    THE    VARIATIONS    IN   THE    COM- 
POSITION   or    HERD    MILK.     (Fleisch.mann.) 

The  specific  gravity  (expressed  in  degrees)  may  go  above 
or  below  the  yearly  average  by  more  than  10  per<:ent. 

The  per  cent  of  fat  may  go  above  or  below  the  yearly 
average  by  more  than  30  per  cent. 

The  per  cent  of  total  solids  may  go  above  or  below  ihe 
yearly  average  by  more  than  14  per  cent. 

The  per  cent  of  solids  not  fat  may  go  above  or  below  the 
yearly  average  by  more  than  10  per  cent. 


MILK. 


269 


TABLE   FOR  CONVERTING   QUARTS   OF  MILK 
INTO    POUNDS. 


Qts. 

Lbs. 

Qts. 
29 

Lbs. 

Qts. 
57 

Lbs. 

Qts 
85 

Lbs. 

I 

2.35 

62.3 

122.4 

182  5 

3 

4-3 

30 

64.4 

58 

124.5 

86 

184.6 

3 

6.4 

31 

66.5 

59 

126.6 

87 

186.8 

4 

8.6 

32 

68.7 

60 

128.8 

88 

188  9 

5 

10  7 

33 

70.8 

61 

130.9 

89 

191  0 

6 

12.9 

34 

73 -o 

62 

I33-I 

90 

193.2 

7 

»5  0 

35 

75-1 

63 

135-2 

91 

195-3 

8 

17.2 

36 

77-3 

64 

137-4 

92 

197.5 

9 

19-3 

37 

7Q-4 

65 

139-5 

93 

199.6 

lO 

21.5 

38 

8t.6 

66 

141-7 

94 

201  8 

1 1 

23.6 

39 

83-7 

67 

143.8 

95 

203.9 

12 

25.8 

40 

85-9 

68 

146.0 

96 

206.1 

'3 

27.9 

41 

88.0 

69 

148. 1 

97 

208.2 

H 

30.1 

42 

90.2 

70 

150-3 

98 

210.4 

15 

32.2 

43 

92-3 

71 

152.4 

99 

212.5 

i6 

34-3 

44 

94-5 

72 

154.6 

100 

214.7 

17 

36  5 

45 

96.6 

73 

156.7 

200 

429.3 

i8 

38.6 

46 

98.7 

74 

158.8 

300 

644.0 

19 

40.8 

47 

100.9 

75 

161. 0 

400 

858  6 

20 

42.9 

48 

103.0 

•;6 

163. 1 

500 

1073-3 

21 

45-1 

49 

105.2 

77 

165-3 

600 

7288  0 

22 

47.2 

50 

'07-3 

78 

167.4 

700 

1502.6 

23 

49-4 

51 

109.5 

79 

169.6 

800 

1717-3 

24 

51-5 

52 

III. 6 

80 

171. 7 

900 

1931  9 

25 

53-7 

53 

113  8 

81 

173-9 

1000 

2:46.6 

26 

55-8 

54 

"5-9 

82 

176.0 

27 

58.0 

55 

ti8.i 

83 

178.2 

28 

60. 1 

56 

120. 2 

84 

180.3 

TABLE   FOR   CONVERTING   POUNDS   OF   MIIiK 
INTO    QUARTS. 


Lbs. 

Qts. 

Lbs. 

29 

Qts 

13-5 

Lbs. 

57 

Qts. 

Lbs. 

Qts. 

I 

•47 

26.6 

85 

39-6 

3 

•93 

30 

14.0 

58 

27.0 

86 

40.1 

3 

1.40 

31 

14.4 

59 

27-5 

87 

40.5 

4 

1.86 

32 

14.9 

60 

28.0 

88 

41 .0 

5 

2.. 33 

33 

15-4 

61 

28.4 

89 

41-5 

6 

2  80 

34 

15.8 

62 

28.9 

90 

41-9 

7 

3.26 

35 

16.3 

63 

29.4 

91 

42.4 

8 

3-73 

36 

16.8 

64 

29.8 

92 

42.9 

9 

4.19 

37 

17.2 

65 

30-3 

93 

43-3 

10 

4.66 

38 

17  7 

66 

30.8 

94 

43  8 

II 

5.13 

39 

18.2 

67 

312 

95 

44.3 

12 

5  59 

40 

18.6 

68 

31^7 

96 

44  7 

13 

6  06 

41 

19.1 

69 

32.2 

97 

45-2 

14 

6.53 

42 

19.6 

70 

32.6 

98 

45.7 

15 

6.99 

43 

20.0 

71 

33  I 

99 

46. 1 

16 

7.4^-^ 

44 

20.5 

72 

33  6 

100 

46.6 

17 

7.92 

45 

21 .0 

73 

34  0 

200 

93-2 

18 

8. 39 

46 

21.4 

74 

34  5 

300 

139.8 

19 

8  85 

47 

21.9 

75 

35 -o 

400 

186.4 

so 

9-32 

48 

22  4 

76 

35  4 

500 

233  0 

21 

9-79 

49 

22.8 

77 

35-9 

600 

279.6 

22 

10.3 

50 

23-3 

78 

36.3 

700 

326 . 2 

23 

10.7 

51 

23-8 

79 

36.8 

800 

372.8 

24 

II. 2 

52 

24.2 

80 

37-3 

900 

419.4 

25 

II  7 

53 

24,7 

81 

37-7 

1000 

466.0 

26 

12. 1 

54 

25.2 

82 

38.2 

27 

15?. 6 

55 

25.6 

83 

38-7 

28 

13.1 

56 

26. 1 

84 

39-1 

269« 


DAIRTIN^G. 


MILK  PRICES  BY   MEASURES. 

(N.  Y.  Farmer.) 


Cents  per 

Cents  per 

40-qt. 

Can. 

Cents  per 

Cents  per 

Cents  per 
40-qt. 
Can. 

Cents  per 

Quart. 

100  Pounds. 

Quart. 

100  Pounds. 

I  .  lOO 

44 

51 . 162 

2.375 

95 

1 10.465 

I.  125 

45 

52.325 

2 .  400 

96 

\  r I .628 

I  .  150 

46 

53.488 

2.425 

97 

112. 701 

1.175 

47 

54-651 

2.450 

98 

I  13-053 

1 .  200 

48 

55.813 

2.475 

99 

1 1  5  .  1 1 6 

I  .  225 

49 

56.976 

2.500 

100 

116. 270 

I  .250 

50 

58.189 

2.525 

lOI 

117.442 

1-275 

SI 

59-302 

2.550 

102 

118. 605 

1 .300 

52 

60.465 

2.575 

103 

119. 767 

1.325 

5.3 

61 . 627 

2 .  600 

104 

120.930 

1.350 

54 

62 . 790 

2.625 

105 

122.093 

1.375 

55 

63 -95  3 

2.650 

106 

123. 256 

1 .400 

56 

65  .  I  16 

2.67s 

107 

124.410 

1.425 

57 

66 . 279 

2.  700 

108 

125.581 

1.450 

58 

67.441 

2.725 

109 

126.744 

1.475 

59 

68.604 

2.750 

no 

127.907 

1 .500 

60 

69. 767 

2.775 

III 

129.070 

1.525 

61 

70.930 

2  .800 

I  I  2 

130.233 

1.550 

62 

72.093 

2.825 

113 

131-395 

1-575 

63 

73-255 

2.850 

114 

132.558 

1 .6oe 

64 

74-418 

2.87s 

115 

133-721 

1 .625 

65 

75.581 

2  .900 

116 

134-884 

1 .650 

66 

76.744 

2.925 

117 

136.047 

1.675 

67 

77907 

2.950 

118 

137.209 

1 .700 

68 

79-069 

2.975 

119 

138.372 

1.725 

69 

80 . 232 

3.000 

I  20 

139-535 

1.750 

70 

81.395 

3-025 

121 

140.698 

1-775 

71 

82.558 

3050 

122 

141 . 861 

1 .800 

72 

83.721 

3-075 

123 

143-023 

1.82s 

73 

84.883 

3-100 

124 

144. 186 

1.850 

74 

86.046 

3-  125 

125 

145-349 

1.875 

75 

87 . 209 

3-150 

126 

146.512 

I  .900 

76 

88.372 

3-175 

127 

147-675 

1.925 

77 

89-535 

3.  200 

128 

14S.837 

1.950 

78 

90.697 

3-225 

I  29 

150 . 000 

1.975 

79 

91 . 860 

3-250 

130 

151-163 

2.000 

80 

93-023 

3.275 

131 

152.326 

2.025 

81 

94. 186 

3.300 

132 

153-489 

2.050 

82 

95-349 

3.325 

133 

154-651 

2.075 

83 

96.511 

■  3-3SO 

134 

155-814 

2. 100 

84 

97.674 

3-375 

135 

156.977 

2.125 

85 

98.837 

3.400 

136 

158. 140 

2. 150 

86 

100. 000 

3-425 

137 

159-303 

2.175 

87 

loi . 163 

3-450 

138 

160.465 

2.  200 

88 

102 . 32s 

3-475 

139 

161.628 

2.325 

89 

103.488 

3-500 

140 

i*$. 791 

2.250 

90 

104 . 651 

3.525 

141 

163-954 

2.275 

91 

105.814 

3.550 

142 

165. 117 

2.300 

02 

106.977 

3.575 

143 

166. 279 

2-325 

93 

108. 139 

3.600 

144 

167.442 

2.350 

94 

109.302 

3.625 

145 

168.605 

MILK. 


2693 


MILK    PRICES    BY    'M'EASV'RES.—  Coniimied. 


Cents  per 
Quart. 

Cents  per 
40-qt. 
Can. 

Cents  per 
'oo  Pounds. 

Cents  per 
Quart. 

Cents  per 
40-qt. 
Can. 

Cents  per 
loo  Pounds. 

3-650 

146 

169. 768 

3.975 

159 

184-884 

3-675 

147 

170.931 

4.000 

160 

186.047 

3.700 

148 

172.093 

4.025 

161 

187. 210 

3-725 

149 

173- 256 

4.050 

162 

188.373 

3.750 

150 

174.419 

4-075 

163 

189-535 

3-775 

151 

175-582 

4.  100 

164 

190 . 698 

3.  Goo 

152 

176. 745 

4-125 

165 

191 . 861 

3-325 

15.3 

177 -007 

4.  150 

166 

193.024 

3- -"50 

154 

179 . 070 

4-175 

167 

T94- 187 

3.875 

155 

180. 233 

4.  200 

168 

195-349 

3.900 

i=;6 

181 .396 

4.225 

169 

196.512 

3-025 

157 

182.559 

4-250 

170 

197-675 

3-950 

158 

183-721 

4-  275 

171 

198.838 

RELATIVE    VALUE    OF   MILK  AND  CREAM  OF 
DIFFERENT  FAT    CONTENTS. 

(Fraser  ) 

The  table  gives  the  relative  value  per  quart  and  number  of  quarts  in 
a  dollar's  worth  of  milk  or  cream  of  different  fat  contents,  calculated 
according  to  the  food  value  of  3-per-cent.  milk  at  5  cents  per  quart. 


Per  Cent 
of  Fat 

Price  per 
Quart, 
Cei:ts. 

No.  of 

Quarts 

a  Dollar. 

Per  Cent 
of  Fat. 

Price  per 
Quart, 
Cents. 

No.  of 

Quarts 

a  Dollar. 

0. 1 

2.8 

35-7        : 

17 

iS-5 

6.4 

I 

3-5 

28.6        1 

18 

16.3 

6 

I 

2 

4.  2 

23-8        1 

19 

17.0 

5 

9 

3 

5-0 

20 . 0        i 

20 

17-7 

5 

6 

4 

5-7 

17-5 

21 

18.4 

5 

4 

5 

6.5 

15-4 

22 

19.2 

5 

2 

6 

7-2 

13-9 

23 

20.0 

5 

0 

7 

8.0 

12.5 

24 

20.  7 

4 

8 

8 

8.7 

II-5 

25 

21  .5 

4 

5 

9 

9-5 

10.5 

26 

22.  2 

4 

S 

10 

10.  2 

9.8 

27 

23-0 

4 

3 

II 

II  .  0 

90 

28 

23-7 

4 

2 

12 

II. 7 

8.5 

29 

24-5 

4 

t 

13 

12.5 

8.0 

30 

25.2 

4 

0 

14 

13-2 

7.6 

31 

26.  0 

3 

8 

15 

14.0 

7-1 

32 

26 .  7 

3 

7 

16 

14.7 

6.8 

270  DAIRYING. 


A3IOUNTS    OF   31ILK,    CREAM,    OR    SKI3I   3IILK    TO    BE 
USED    IN    310DIFYING    3IILK.     (Pearson.) 

The  amounts  of  cream  or  skim  milk  that  arc  to  be  used  in 
modifying  normal  milk  may  be  calculated  by  use  of  the  follow- 
ing simple  method: 

Draw  a  square  and  write  at  the  two  left-hand  corners  the 
percentages  of  fat  in  the  milk  and  the  cream  or  skim  milk  that 
are  to  be  mixed.  In  the  centre  place  the  percentage  required. 
The  differences  between  the  latter  figures  and  those  at  the  left- 
hand  corners  are  then  placed  at  the  two  corners  with  which  they 
stand  in  line.  The  two  right-hand  figures  will  represent  the 
proportions  of  milk  and  cream  or  skim  milk  that  should  be 
weighed  out  in  making  the  modified  milk. 


B—Cior  C—B) 


A—C(or  C—A) 


Example. — How  much  5  per  cent  milk  must  be  added  to  milk 
containing  3.5  per  cent  fat  in  order  to  raise  its  fat  content  to  4 
per  cent?     In  this  case  ^  =  3.5,  B=4,  and  C=5   (see  above); 

i.o  .^ 

then  B  —  C=  1.0  and  A  — B=  .^.     — X  ioo=.66.7and— ^X  100= 

1-5  1-5 

3.33.  To  make,  say,  1000  lbs.  of  4  per  cent  milk  667  lbs.  of  3.5 
per  cent  and  7,^7,  lbs.  of  5  per  cent  milk  must  therefore  be  taken. 
This  method  of  calculation  may  be  used  to  advantage  in 
modifying  or  standardizing  milk  or  cream,  with  cither  cream, 
new  milk,  or  skim  milk,  whether  a  product  of  a  higher  or  lower 
fal  content  is  wanted  than  that  at  hand. 


MILK. 


271 


STAXDARDIZATIOX   OF    MILK. 

(Erf.) 

Quantity  of  Skim  Milk  to  be  Added  to,  or  Subtracted  from,  too 
Pounds  of  Milk  to  Make  Milk  of  a  Desired  Per  Cent,  of  Fat. 


Desired  Per  Cent,  of  Fat. 

3.25 

3.50 

0.75 

4.0 

4  25 

4.50 

4.75 

5.0 

fs. 

-   7.693 

-14.285 

-20.000 

-25.00 

-29.412 

-33  333 

-36.842 

-  40.000 

3.1 

-  4  616 

-11.428 

-17.333 

-22.50 

-27  059-31.111 

-34.737 

-38.000 

tj 

3.2 

-    1.539 

-   8  571 

-14.666 

-20.00 

-24  706  -28  888 

-32  032 

-36  000 

c 

3.3 

+   1  539 

-   5714 

-12.000-17.50 

-22.353-26.666 

-  30.527 

-  34  000 

3  4+   4  616 

-   2.S57 

-   9.333- 15  Oo 

-20.0001-24  444 

-28.422 

-32.000 

H 

3  5  +   7  693 

-   0.000 

-    6  666  -  12  50 

-17  647-22.222 

-26.317 

-?0  000 

o 

3  6+10.760 

+   2.857 

-   4.000-10.00 

-15.294-20  000 

-24.212 

-28  VOO 

^ 

3  7+13  837 

+   5.714 

-    1.333  -    7.50 

-12.941!- 17  777 

-22.107 

-26.000 

3  8+16.914 

+  8.571  +    1.333-   5.00 

-10.588,-15.555 

-  20.000 

-24.000 

s 

3.9  +19.991 

+  11.428  +   4.000-   2.50 

-   8.235-13.333 

-17.897 

-22.000 

s' 

4.0  +23.068 

+  14.285  +   6.6G6j-    0.00 

-   5.882-11.111 

-15.792 

-  20  000 

■»J 

4  l!  + 26.145 

+  17.142  +   9.333+   2.50 

-   2.429-   8.888 

-13.687 

-18  000 

4  2+29  22'' 

+  19.999  +12.000,+   5.00 

-   0.076-    6.666 

-11.582 

-16.000 

4  3+ 32^299 

+  22.856+14.666,+    7.50 

+   0.076-    4.444 

-   9.477 

-14  000 

+-1 

4  4  +35.376 

+  25.713+17.333+10  00 

+   2  429  —    2  222 

-    7.372 

-12.000 

CJ 

O 

4  5+38.453 

+  28.57    +20.000,  + 12.50 

+   5^882-    O^OOO 

-   5.267 

-10  000 

46+41  530 

+  31.427  +22.6661  +  15.00 

+  8.235+   2.222 

-    3.162 

-    S.OOO 

o 

4  7;  +  44  607 

+  34.284+25.333{+17.50 

+  10.588+   4.444 

-    1.057 

-    6  000 

Ph 

4.8+47  6S4 

+  37.141  +28.000, +  20.00 

+  12.941  -L   6666 

+    1.057 

-    4  000 

4.9  +50.761 

+  39.998 

+  30.666+22  50  | 

+  17  647+   8  888 

+   3.162 

-   2  000 

5.0 

+53.838 

+42.855 

i 

+  33.333 

+  25  00 

+  20.000+11  111 

1 

+   5  267 

-   0.000 

To  find  the  pounds  of  skim  milk  to  be  added  or  removed,  trace  the 
vertical  column  of  the  desired  per  cent  of  fat  to  where  the  horizontal 
column  representimj  the  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  milk  on  hand  intersects; 
the  result  will  be  the  number  of  pounds  of  skim  milk  to  be  added  or 
removed  to  too  lbs.  <£  milk,  as  indicated  by  a  plus  or  minus  sign 
before  the  figure  (see  111.  Bull.  No.  75). 


272  DAIRYING. 

RULES    AND   KEGUIiATIONS 

to  he  observed  in  the  care  of  cows  and  the  handling  of  milk  shipped 
to  the  City  of  New  York.     (Dept.  of  Health,  City  of  New  York.) 

The  Cows. — I.  The  cows  must  be  kept  clean. 
2.  Manure   must   not   be   permitted   to  collect  upon  the  tail, 
sides,  udder,  and  belly  of  any  milch-cows. 

Stables. — i.  Cow  stables  must  be  well  lighted  and  ventilated. 

2.  Floors  must  be  tight  and  well  drained. 

3.  Manure  must  be  removed  from  the  stalls  and  gutters  before 
the  morning  milking  and  also  before  the  afternoon  milking, 
where  the  cows  remain  in  the  stables  all  day. 

4.  Walls  and  ceilings  must  be  kept  clean. 

5.  The  ceiling  must  be  so  constructed  that  dust  and  dirt 
therefrom  shall  not  readily  fall  to  the  floor  or  into  the  milk. 

6.  Stables  must  be  whitewashed  at  least  once  a  year. 

The  Water-supply. — i.  The  water-supply  used  in  the  barn 
and  for  washing  milk  utensils  must  be  free  from  contamination. 

The  Milk  House. —  i.  A  milk  house  must  be  provided  which 
is  separated  from  the  stable  and  the  dwelling-house. 

2.  It  must  be  kept  clean  and  must  not  be  used  for  any  purpose 
except  the  handling  of  milk. 

The  Milkers. — i.  No  person  having  any  communicable  dis- 
ease, or  one  caring  for  persons  having  such  disease,  must  be 
allowed  to  handle  the  milk  or  milk  utensils. 

The  Uioisils. — i.  All  milk-utensils,  including  pails,  cans, 
strainers,  and  dippers,  must  be  kept  thoroughly  clean  and  must 
be  washed  and  scalded  after  each  using. 

The  Milk. — i.  Milk  from  diseased  cows  must  not  be  shipped. 

2.  The  milk  must  not  be  in  any  way  adulterated. 

3.  The  straining  of  milk  must  be  done  in  the  milk  house  only. 

4.  All  milk  must  be  cooled  to  a  temperature  not  above  55  deg.  F. 
within  two  hours  after  being  drawn,  and  kept  thereafter  below 
that  temperature,  and  must  be  cooled  to  50  deg.  or  less  if  not 
delivered  at  the  creamery  twice  daily. 

5.  The  use  of  any  preservative  or  coloring  matter  is  an  adul- 
teration, and  its  use  by  a  producer  or  shipper  will  be  a  sufficient 
cause  for  the  exclusion  of  his  milk  from  the  City  of  New  York. 


CKEAM, 


^73 


TIT.  ^^E^M. 


PERCENTAGE    COMPOSITION    OF    CREAM.     (Komg.) 


Mean  of  47 

Analyses. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Water 

Fat.. 

Casein,  Albumen,  etc 

Milk-sugar 

Ash 

67.61 
23.80 

4-12 

3.92 

•  53 

43.04 

15.78 

I  .75 

.62 

.  II 

83.23 

30.19 

8.19 

6.23 

1 .  10 

Specific  gravity,  i.ioo.  . 

100.00 

PERCENTAGE    COMPOSITION  CF  DAIRY 
PRODUCTS.     ivoMG.) 


Skim -milk,  grav 
ity  creaming  . . . 

Centrifugal  skim 
milk 

Buttermilk 

Whry 

Preserved  milk  . . 

Condensed  milk 
(no  sugar  added) 

Condensed  milk, 
(sugar  added).    . 

Scherff's  condens- 
ed milk 

Koumiss  (from 
mares'  milk)   . . 

Koumiss  (from 
cows'  milk).    . . 

Kephir.. 


No.   of 
Analy- 
ses. 

■c 

Casein 
and  Al- 
bumen. 

xi 

(A 
< 

56 

90-43 

.87 

3.26 

4-74 

.70 

7 

90.60 

-31 

3.06 

5-29 

•74 

57 
46 

90.12 
93  38 

1.09 

■32 

4  03 
.86 

4.04 
4-79 

.72 
.65 

4 

87  97 

3    2» 

3-34 

4-74 

•74 

36 

58.99 

12.42 

11.92 

14.49 

2.18 

64 

25.61 

10.35 

11.79 

50.06* 

2.19 

5 

72.87 

6.6i 

8.20 

to. 63 

1.68 

43 

90.44 

1.46 

2.24 

1-77 

.42 

11 

89.20 

1.83 

2.66 

4.09 

■43 

17. 

91 .21 

I  44 

3-49 

2.41 

.68 

Specific 
Gravity. 


1-0357 

1.0350 
1 .0348 
I .0272 
I. 0313 


Lactic    Alco- 
acid.        hoi. 
.91        I. 91 


•55 
1 .02 


.14 

75 


*  13.84  per  cent  rnjik-sugar,  36.22  per  cent  cane-sugar. 


274 


DAIRYING. 


YIELD    OF    CREA3I    FROM    MILK    OF    DIFFERENT 
RICHNESS. 


Per  Cent  of  Fat 

in  Cream. 

• 

Fat  in 

Milk, 

12 

15 

18 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

Per  Cent. 

Number  of  Pounds  of  Cream  from  1000  lbs.  of  Milk. 

30 

244 

195 

162 1  146 

116 

97 

86 

73 

65 

58 

53 

48 

3-1 

253 

201 

168 1  151 

1 20 

100 

89 

75 

67 

60 

55 

50 

3-2 

261 

208 

173 

156 

124 

104 

92 

78 

69 

62 

56 

52 

3-3 

268 

215 

179 

161 

129 

107 

95 

80 

71 

64 

58 

53 

3-4 

277 

221 

184 

166 

133 

no 

97 

83 

74 

66 

60 

55 

3-5 

286 

228 

190 

171 

137 

114 

TOO 

85 

76 

68 

62 

57 

3.6 

294 

235 

196 

176 

141 

117 

103 

88 

78 

70 

64 

58 

3-7 

303 

242 

201 

181 

145 

I  20 

106 

90 

80 

72 

66 

60 

3-8 

311 

248 

207 

186 

149 

124 

109 

03 

82 

74 

67 

62 

3-9 

319 

255 

212 

191 

i5o 

127 

112 

95 

85 

76 

69 

63 

4.0 

328 

262 

218 

196 

157 

130 

115 

98 

87 

78 

71 

65 

4-1 

336 

268 

223 

201 

161 

134 

117 

100 

89 

80 

73 

67 

4-2 

345 

275 

229 

206 

165 

137 

I  20 

103 

91 

82 

75 

68 

4-3 

353 

282 

235 

211 

169 

140 

123 

105 

94 

84 

77 

70 

4.4 

361 

289 

240 

216 

173 

144 

I  26 

108 

96 

86 

78 

72 

4-5 

370 

295 

246 

221 

177 

147 

129 

no 

98 

88 

80 

73 

4.6 

378 

302 

251 

226 

181 

150 

132 

113 

100 

90 

82 

75 

4.7 

387 

309 

257 

231 

185 

154 

135 

115 

102 

92 

84 

77 

4.8 

395 

315 

263 

236 

189 

157 

138 

118 

105 

94 

86 

78 

4.9 

403 

322 

268 

241 

193 

161 

140 

120 

107 

96 

87 

80 

5.0 

412 

329 

274 

246 

197 

164 

143 

123 

109 

98 

89 

82 

CREAM. 


275 


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276 


DAIRYING. 


LIST    OF    HAND    AND    POWER    CREAM    SEPARATORS 
ON    THE    AMERICAN    MARKET,    1913. 


Name. 


A.  Hand  or  Dairy  Separa- 
tors. 

1.  De  Laval  Improved  Farm 

Separators. 
Nos.  4,  5,  10,  12,  15,  17, 

22 

Nos,     19,    20    and    25 — 

Steam  Turbine 

2.  U.  S.  Cream  Separators. 

Nos.  40,  19,  18,  17,  16, 
IS,  14,  12,  Interlocking 
Style 

Nos.  15,  14,  12 — ^Inter- 
locking Style  Turbine. 

3.  The  Empire  Cream  Sepa- 

rators. 
Nos.  41,  42.  43,  44-  •  ■  • 
Nos.  31.   32,  Zi,  34.  35 
36 — Center    Feed    Em- 
pire Disc 

4.  Sharpies      Tubular      "A" 

Cream  Separators. 

Nos.  I,  2,  3,  4,  6,  9. .  . 

Nos.    5,    7,     10 — Dairy 

Steam  Tubular 

5.  The      "Eclipse"       Cream 

Separators. 
Nos.  I,  2,  3,  4,  5 


The  American  Cream  Sep- 
arators. 
Nos.  10,  II,   12 — Ameri- 
can Wonder 

Nos.    I,   2,  3 — American 

Low- Down 

The     Rcid     Disc     Bracket 
Cream  Separators. 
Nos.  I,  2,  3 


Capacity 
per  Hour. 


8.  Simplex      Link      Blade 
Cream  Separators. 
Nos.    35.    5.    7.    9.    II — 

Hand  Power 

Nos.     7,     9,      II  —  Dairy 

Turbines 

The  National  Cream  Sep- 
arators. ! 
Nos.  22,  24,  26,  28.  .  .      ' 


9- 


10.   The  Iowa  Dairy  Separa- 
tors. 
Nos.  25,  30,  35 


Lbs. 


135-1350 
675-1350 

175-1350 
750-1350 

350-800 

200-1050 

225-950 
500-1000 

400-1600 


125-300 
400-700 

300-600 


350-1100 
700-1100 

325-800 
500-850 


Retail 
Price. 


$40-$ 160 
100-175 

25-135 
110-150 


40-110 
80-125 


60-150 


Manufacturer 
or  Agency. 


The  De  Laval  Sep- 
arator Co.,  N.  Y. 


Vermont        Farm 
Machine  Co., 
Bellows  Falls,  Vt. 


Empire     Cream 
Separator       Co., 
Bloomfield,  N.  J. 


The  Sharpies  Sep- 
arator Co.,  West 
Chester,  Pa. 

The  C.  L.  Chap- 
man Cream  Sep. 
Works,  Erie,  Pa. 


15-95-24.95'  f  American     Sep. 

:  ■!      Co.,  Bain- 
37.75-47.50   [     bridge,  N.  Y. 

f  'a.  H.  Reid  Cry.  & 


45-65 


Dairy     Supply 
Co.,  Phila.,  Pa. 


ro-ioo  f    D.    H.    Burrell 
.     -I       Co..  Little  Fall- 


110-130  i 
60-100 


N.  Y. 

National  Dairy 
Machine  Co., 
Goshen,  Ind. 


r  I  Iowa  Dairy  Sepa- 
75-100  <   I    rator  Co.,  Water- 
I   I   loo,  Iowa. 


CREAM. 


277 


LIST  OF  HAND  AND  POWER  CREAM  SEPARATORS. 

{Co7Ui7iued.) 


Name. 

11.  Peerless    Cream    Separa- 

tors. 
Nos.  5,  7,  9 

12.  The  Cleveland  Separators 

Nos.  0,  I,  2,  3  (models 
D,  E,  F.  G) 

13.  Great      Western      Cream 

Separators. 
Nos.  20,  30,  40,  60,  70, 
90 

14.  Blue   Bell,   Dairy   Maid, 

and  Lily  Cream  Sep- 
arators. 

Nos.  I,  2,  3,  4 — Blue 
Bell  and  Dairy  Maid. 

Nos.  I,  2,  3,  4,  5 — -Lily 

15.  New     Improved     Coldest 

Harvest  Separator. 
4  styles 

16.  Economy    Chief   Separa- 

tors. 
3  styles 

17.  The    King    Sanitary 

Cream.  Separators 

Nos.  2,  4,  6,  8 

18.  Wisconsin   Dairy   Cream 

Separators. 
Nos.    3.    4.    S.    6,    7 — 
Gearless  Victory 

19.  The     Milwaukee     Cream 

Separators. 
3  styles 

20.  The  Standard  Cream  Sep- 

arators. 

Nos.  3,  5.  6,  9,  12 — 
Champion  Hand 
Crank 

Automatic  gasoline  en- 
gine and  cream  sepa- 
rator combined 

21.  The  Beatrice  Cream  .Sep- 

arators. 
Nos.  42,  47,  52 

22.  Anker-Holth  Self  Balanc- 

ing Separators. 
Nos.  3.  5,  7.  9 


Capacity 
per  Hour, 


Lbs. 
500-900 

350-800 
300-900 


350-850 
350-1050 


350-900 
250-600 
250-  800 

350-900 
500-900 

350-1200 

738 
550-1000 
300-900 


Retail 
Price. 


Manufacturer 
or  Agency. 


40-60 


65-105 


55-110 


39.80-47.00 


27. 65-42. 35 


24.95-48.80 


40-75 


50-60 


125 


55-75 


Peerless  Cream 
Separator  Co., 
Waterloo,  Iowa. 

The     Cleveland 
Cream  Separator 
Co. .Cleveland,  O. 


Rock  Island  Plow 
Co.,  Rock  Island, 
111. 


Internat.  Harv. 
Co.    of    America, 
Chicago,  111. 

[  Montgomery 
Ward    &     Co.. 
Chicago,  111. 


Sears,  Roebuck, 
&  Co.,  Chicago, 
111. 


King  Separator 
Wks.,  Buffalo. 
X.  Y. 


Starch   Bros.    Co., 
La  Crosse,  Wis. 

The  Milwaukee 
Separator  Co., 
Milwaukee,   Wis. 


Standard    Separa- 
tor    Co..     Mil- 
waukee. Wis. 


Beatrice  Creamery 
!    Co. .Lincoln,  Neb. 


f  !  Anker-Holth  Mfg. 
55-105  •!  I    Co.,  Port  Huron, 
[      Mich. 


278 


DAIRTIN"G. 


LIST  OF  HAND    AND  POWER    CREAM    SEPARATORS. 

(Contifiued.) 


Name. 


23.   The  Galloway  Cream  Sep- 
arators. 
Nos.  I,  2,  ro.  14,  16,  18 

B.  Power  Separators. 

1.  De  Laval  Separators. 

"Alpha"  Nos.  I,  2,  Belt 

"Alpha"  Nos.  I,  2,  Tur- 
bine  

"Alpha"  Acme  Belt..  .  . 

"Alpha"   Acme  Turbine 

Standard  Belt 

Standard  Turbine 

Centrifugal  Milk  Clari- 
fier,  Belt.  Nos.  115,  120 

Centrifugal  Milk  Clari- 
fier.  Turbine 

2.  U.  S.  Cream  Separators. 

Nos.  12,  14,  IS — Turbine 

Nos.  I,  o — Turbine 

Nos.  I,  o — Belt 

3.  Tubular  Cream  Separators 

Nos.    16.    26,    32,    40 — 

Turbine 

Nos.  15,  25.  33.  41 — Belt 

4.  "Simplex"  Separators. 

Nos.  2i,  3,  4 — Turbine. 

Nos.  2^,  3,  4 — Belt 

Nos.  7,  9,  II — Dairy- 
Turbine  

Milk  Clarifier,  Belt  or 
Turbine 

Whey  Separator,  Belt  or 
Turbine  (2  sizes) 

5.  Victory  Cream  Separator. 


Capacity 
per  Hour, 


Lbs. 
200-1200 

3500-5000 

3500-5000 
2000 
2000 
1300 
1300 

8-12,000 

8-12,000 

750-1350 
2300-3000 
2300-3000 

1500-4200 
1500-4200 

1200-3500 
1200-3500 

700-1100 

12000 

3500-450C 
800 


Retail 
Price. 


29.75-91.00 


500-750 

525-800 
350 
375 
250 
275 


110-150 


200-360 
200-360 

200-500 
225-500 

110-130 

500 

350-500 
85 


Manufacturer 
or  Agency. 


The  Wm.  Gallo- 
way Co., 
Waterloo,  la. 


The      De      Laval 
Separator     Co., 
New  York. 


Vt.  Farm  Machine 
Co.,    Bellows 
Falls.  Vt. 

The  Sharpies  Sep- 
arator Co.,  West 
Chester,  Pa. 


D.  H.  Barrel!  & 
Co..  Little  Falls, 
N.  Y. 


Starch    Bros.,    La 
Crosse,  Wis. 


FORMULAS    FOR   FINDING    THE    FAT    CONTENT    OF 

CREAM. 


Fleischtnann's  formula: 


rev  cent  fat  m  cream  =72  = h/i, 


where  R  =  per   cent  of   cream  obtained,  /  =  per  cent  fat  in 
milk,  fi  =a  per  cent  fat  in  skim-milk;  or 

looF 


(JKEAM.  279' 

where  7^=  per  cent  of  fat  in  butter,  B  =  yield  of  butter  from 
loo  lbs.  of  milk,  A  :=percentage  churning.    Under  ordinary- 
conditions  of  creaming  these  formulas  may  be  simplified  to 
/j  =  6.67/-  1.42,     and    /,  =  5-77^. 

Formula  for  finding  the  per  cent  cream  to  be  separated  when 
a  certain  fat  content  in  the  creatn  is  «'rt«^^^  (Fleischmann); 

ioo(/-/0, 

•""     h-A     ' 

f,fi,  and /a  =  per  cent  of  fat  in  full  milk,  skim-milk,  and 

cream,  respectively. 

Formula  for  diluting  cream  to  a  desired  fat  content: 

c  Y.  f\ 
Separator  skim-milk  to  be  added  =  ;f  =  — -~  —  c, 

c  being  the  pounds  of  original  cream  of  a  fat  content  oi  fx  , 
andy2  the  fat  content  wanted  in  the  cream. 

HANDLING  AND  CARE  OF  CREAM  SEPARATORS. 

By  J.  D.  Frederiksen,  Little  Falls,  N.  Y.,  Manager  Chr.  Hansen's 
Laboratory. 

In  selecting  a  separator,  local  conditions,  space  at  dis- 
posal, nearness  to  its  manufacturer  who  can  put  it  up, 
be  held  responsible,  and  quickly  attend  to  repairs,  etc., 
may  be  of  importance,  and  the  following  points  should  be 
considered: 

Thorough  Separation.  —  All  manufacturers  claim  that 
their  machines  do  perfect  work,  but  they  do  not  always 
come  up  to  the  claims.  Under  normal  conditions  the  meas- 
ure for  thoroughness  of  separation  is  the  contents  of  butter -fat 
in  the  ski?n-milk  as  ascertained  by  the  Babcock  test.  The  best 
modern  separators  skim  practically  absolutely  clean,  and 
there  is  now  no  excuse  for  anything  but  perfect  skimming. 
With  normal  milk  at  the  proper  temperature  run  into  the 
machine  at  the  rate  of  the  capacity  claimed  for  it,  no  sepa- 
rator should  leave  more  than  0.l<?'  of  butter-fat  in  the  skim- 
milk,  which  is  the  smallest  percentage  that  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  the  Babcock  test  with  accuracy. 

The  table  below  gives  the  grand  averages  for  the  per- 
centages of  fat  found  in  the  trials  of  a  number  of  the 
leading  separators,  conducted  at  the  experiment  stations 
of  Delaware,  Cornell  (N.  Y.),  "Vermont,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Wisconsin. 


280 


DAIRTIJSTG. 


PER    CENT    FAT  IN    CENTRIFUGAL  SKIM-MILK. 


Style  of  Separator. 


Butter  Accumulator. 

Columbia  Cream  Separator 

Raid's  Impr.  Danish  Separator 

Danish- Weston  "         

De  Laval  Alpha  No.  I        "        

"         Alpha  Acme        "         

"         Alpha  Turbine   "         

"         Alpha  Baby  No.  2  Separator.    . 
"         Alpha  Baby  No.  3  '*         .   . 

"         Horizontal  Separator 

Jumbo  Separator 

Sharpies  Russian  Separator 

'■         Imperial  "  

U.  S.  Butter  Extractor  Sep.  No.  i. 

Do.  (as  separator) 

U.  S.  Butter  Extr.  Sep.  No.  2 

Do.  No.  3 

U.  S.  Separator  No.  i   

Do.  No.  3 

Do.  No.  5 

Victoria,  30  gal.  Separator.. .   

Do.       70  gal.         "         


Aver;iges 

of  Trials  at 

American  Experiment 

Stat 

ons. 

Number 
of  Trials. 

Per  cent 

Fat  in 

Skim-milk. 

II 

•14 

19 

.  12 

8 

.14 

3 

.10 

2 

.10 

21 

.09 

51 

.OQ 

112 

.08 

7 

•125 

9 

19 

4 

.21 

34 

.24 

30 

•34 

5 

.24 

2 

.14 

8 

•34 

10 

.21 

9 

•17 

21 

.10 

27 

•13 

25 


With  the  constant  improvement  in  machines  it  is  not 
difficult  to  find  separators  which  will  do  perfect  work. 

Simplicity,  durability  and  safety  of  construction  are  con- 
siderations of  vital  importance.  The  separator  must  be 
simple  in  construction  so  as  to  be  easy  to  handle,  to  clean, 
and  to  oil.  It  must  be  durable,  so  that  it  will  need  but  few 
repairs,  and,  first  of  all,  it  must  be  absolutely  safe.  Too 
many  deplorable  fatal  accidents  are  already  due  to  burst- 
ing separator  bowls,  and  too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on 
the  demand  that  the  machine  must  by  strongly  built,  of  first- 
class  material  and  workmanship,  so  that  accidents  are 
made  impossible  with  reasonably  careful  handling. 

As  the  pressure  on  the  circumference  of  the  bowl  increases 
with  the  square  of  the  speed,  it  is  evident  that  the  modern 
high-speed  separators  are  exposed  to  a  tremendous  strain 
— in  fact  the  tensile  strain  in  some  of  them  is  as  high  as 
20,000  to  30,000  lbs.  to  the  square  inch.  Fortunately,  the  im- 
provements in  bearings  and  other  features  of  construction 


CKEAM. 


28 1 


which  have  enabled  manufacturers  to  increase  the  speed, 
have  caused  them  at  the  same  time  to  reduce  the  diameter 
of  the  bowl,  which  makes  the  modern  machine  much  safer 
than  the  first  crude  and  heavy  separators. 

Po7ver. — Considering  its  capacity,  a  well-built  separator 
requires  comparatively  little  power,  whether  coal  or 
muscle.  But  as  either  is  money,  it  is  a  matter  of  impor- 
tance that  none  be  wasted.  Many  so-called  hand  separa- 
tors are-  altogether  too  heavy  to  run  by  hand,  hence  in 
selecting  one  see  that  it  is  easy  to  keep  it  running  for 
several  hours.  The  tests  made  at  the  experiment  stations 
by  dynamometer,  as  well  as  by  measuring  the  steam  con- 
sumed, show  that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  steam  wasted  in 
a  creamery  above  that  actually  required  to  drive  the  separa- 
tor; that  "the  turbines  use  steam  extravagantly,  but  that 
the  small  engine  of  the  creamer)^  uses  it  still  more  extrava- 
gantly." Due  allowance  must  therefore  be  made  for  this 
waste  in  comparing  results  obtained  by  various  methods 
of  testing.  The  following  table  gives  some  of  the  results 
published  by  the  stations: 

Horse-power  per  1000  lbs.  31ilk. 


Style  of  Separator. 

Dela- 
ware. 

New 
York. 

Ver- 
mont. 

Wisconsin. 

Butter  Accumulator    ...    

2.69 
317 

■  ;:83' 
0.79 

2.45 

Columbia  Cream  Separator 

Reid's  Improved  Danish 

2 .  12 

De  Laval  Standard 

''         Alpha  No.  I 

Alptia  Acme 

Baby  No.  2. 

"              "      No.  3 

0-37 

0.81 
0.98 
0.46 

0.26 

1-37 

Jumbo     

United  States  No.  i 

No.  ^ 

0.76 

1. 12 

0.63 
0.72 

No.  5 

Victoria,  700  lbs 

SoRals 

0.74 
o.8t 

2.78 

Dj  Laval  Alpha  Turbine.    

1.47  to  1.79 
1.42 

T.75  to  2.  II 

Sharplcr^  Imperial 

Russian 

These  tests  are  made  with  single   machines   and  do  not 
guarantee  that  all  separators  of  the  same  makes  consume 


DAIK^IKPt. 


the  same  power  or  steam.  The  accumulating  results  of 
such  trials  being  compiled,  however,  become  a  guide  in 
estimating  the  value  of  the  various  machines  in  the 
market.  As  between  belt  and  turbine  (or  direct  steam) 
power,  the  former  is  preferable  in  large  creameries.  In 
small  plants  one  is  about  as  economical  as  the  other,  and 
the  choice  may  depend  upon  whether  an  engine  is  needed 
for  churning,  butter-worker,  puinp,  and  other  purposes,  or 
you  can  do  without  it. 

Capacity.  —  In  selecting  a  separator  it  is  best  to  have 
plenty  of  capacity.  In  a  large  creamery  it  is  better  to 
have  two  separators  of  moderate  size  than  one  very  large 
machine.  Only  in  very  large  creameries  may  separators 
of  largest  capacity  be  preferable.  The  capacity  should  be 
such  as  to  finish  the  day's  work  in  4  to  6  hours  at  the  time 
when  there  is  most  milk.  In  the  private  dairy,  using  a 
hand  separator,  the  work  should  require  only  one  hour, 
rather  less.  The  following  would  be  our  idea  of  the  proper 
capacity: 


Largest  Supply  of  Milk 
per  Day,  lbs. 

Number  of 
Machines. 

Capacity  of  Each 

Machine,  lbs. 

per  hour. 

Power. 

(      2  or      / 
1     more     \ 

2 

2 

2 

1 

I 

I 

I 

I 
1 

2.000  to  2,500 

1,500  "  2,000 

1,200  "  1,500 

1,000 

1,200 

600  to  1,000 

600 

300  to  500 
300 
150 

Engine 

K 

Eiig.  or  Turb. 

2,:-oo  "     5,000 

j  Sheep,  or  dog, 
)      or  turbine, 
j  Hand,  or  dog, 
1      or  sheep. 
Hand 

Less   than   100 

Condition  of  Cream. — As  discharged  from  the  separator, 
the  cream  should  be  smooth  and  even,  free  from  froth  and 
of  perfect  "  churnability." 

As  to  cost,  the  best  machine  is  always  the  cheapest  in  the  long 
run.  Repairs,  waste  of  fat  in  the  skim-milk,  of  oil,  and  ol 
coal,  by  an  inferior  machine,  will  more  than  make  up  any 
saving  in  first  cost. 


CREAM.  283 

Running  the  Separator. 

The  Operator  should  understand  his  Business.  —  He  should 
have  thorough  training  in  creameries  as  a  helper  and,  if 
possible,  in  a  dairy  school,  before  undertaking  to  manage 
5.  creamery  separator  on  his  own  responsibility.  A  new 
machine  should  be  put  up  and  started  by  the  manufacturer 
or  his  agent,  and  prove  in  perfect  shape  and  efficiency  be- 
fore he  leaves.  Every  manufacturer  gives  detailed  in- 
structions as  to  the  care  of  the  separator,  and  such  an 
instruction  book  should  always  be  at  hand.  The  operator 
of  hand  as  well  as  of  power  machines  should  make  him- 
self familiar  with  every  detail  of  the  construction. 

Coyidition  and  Temperature  of  the  Alilk. — Fresh  and  7i<arm 
from  the  coiv,  the  milk  is  in  the  best  condition  to  be  skimmed. 
If  it  cannot  be  had  in  that  condition,  it  should  be  aerated 
and  cooled  on  the  farm,  so  that  it  arrives  at  the  creamery 
or  the  dairy  at  not  over  60°.  Then  reheat  it  to  80°  or  85°, 
not  under  75°  and  not  over  90^.  This  heating  is  prefer- 
ably done  in  some  continuous  heater,  as  it  is  dangerous  to 
heat  it  in  bulk,  because  milk  standing  some  time  at  85°  is 
apt  to  spoil.  While  the  separator  will  skim  at  a  lower 
temperature,  either  the  skimming  is  not  clean  or  less  milk 
must  be  run  through  the  machine  in  the  same  time.  Of 
course,  the  milk  must  be  sweet. 

Starting.  —  Oil  all  bearings  thoroughly,  tising  only  the  very 
best  oil.  Ascertain  that  everything  is  in  trim  order,  then 
start  according  to  instructions,  Avhich  vary  for  different 
kinds  of  machines.  Always  start  carefully,  and  where  the 
belt  from  the  intermediate  is  shifted  from  loose  to  fixed 
pulley,  do  it  slowly  and  gradually,  helping  with  the  hand 
on  the  belt  to  start  the  bowl.  When  the  bowl  appears  to 
be  running  at  full  speed  without  shaking,  ascertain  if  it 
really  does  so  by  means  of  the  speed  indicator,  which 
should  always  be  found  on  any  power  machine. 

Never  allow  the  machine  to  run  faster  than  permitted  hy 
the  manufacturer.  If  you  do,  it  is  at  your  risk  and  at 
the  risk  of  the  lives  of  your  assistants.  Use  the  speed 
indicator  often. 


284  DAIRYING. 

See  that  the  feed  of  new  milk  is  correct  and  that  the  pro- 
portion of  cream  to  milk  is  as  wanted.  Hold  a  quart  meas- 
ure under  the  skim-milk  spout  and  a  measuring  glass  un- 
der the  cream  outlet,  and,  when  the  quart  measure  is  full, 
see  how  much  cream  you  have  in  the  measuring  glass,  tak- 
ing the  time  by  your  watch.  If  you  have  6  ozs.  of  cream 
to  I  quart  of  skim-milk  in  9  seconds,  you  have  taken  6 
parts  of  cream  from  38  of  new  milk,  or  a  little  less  than 
one  sixth,  or  about  16^,  and  you  are  running  at  the  rate 
of  950  lbs.  per  hour.  How  large  a  proportion  of  cream  to 
take  from  the  milk  depends  upon  the  richness  of  the  milk 
and  the  consistency  of  cream  desired.  If  you  have  4^ 
milk  and  you  wish  cream  of  28^  fat,  you  will  take  i 
part  of  cream  from  7  of  new  milk,  or  14^  . 

Keep  the  oil-cups  filled  and  look  frequently  at  all  working 
parts  of  the  machinery.  Well  started  and  regulated,  it 
will  run  uninterrupted  until  all  the  milk  is  skimmed. 
When  the  last  milk  has  entered  the  bowl,  pour  in  suffi- 
cient skim-milk  to  crowd  out  all  the  cream  left.  If  the 
skim-milk  is  removed  from  the  building  while  the  separa- 
tor is  runnir.g,  take  satuples  frequently,  or,  if  it  is  all  left 
after  the  work  is  done,  take  a  few  average  samples  to  test 
with  the  Babcock  machine,  so  as  to  control  the  day' s  700 rk. 

Stop  the  jnachine  cautiously,  removing  the  motive  power 
and  letting  the  howl  come  to  a  stand-still  of  itself  zuithout 
applying  any  brake.  Remove  the  skim-milk  left  in  the  bowl 
by  a  siphon  or  otherwise,  take  off  the  covers,  etc.,  and  lift 
out  the  bowl. 

Cleaning. — First  rinse  the  bowl  and  other  parts  which 
have  been  in  contact  with  milk  in  cold  or  tepid  water,  and 
then  scrub  them  in  boiling  water,  frequently  using  some 
solution  of  sal-soda.  Scrub  and  brush  every  corner.  Rinse 
in  clean  boiling  water  and  steam  out  the  tin  covers,  etc. 
Wipe  with  a  cloth  and  set  the  things  to  dry.  Pump  out 
every  pipe  that  cannot  be  reached  by  hand  and  brush.  If 
possible,  avoid  the  tise  of  rubber  hose  to  conduct  the  milk 
from  the  vat  or  heater  to  the  separator,  but  use  open  tin 
conductors  or  short  tin  pipes,  which  can  be  easily  kept 
clean.     Rubber  hose  cannot    be   washed   in    boiling  water 


CREAM, 


285 


or  soda,  and  is  a  source  of  contamination.  Clean  the 
separator  stand  carefully  with  a  cloth  and  wipe  the  spindles, 
etc.  Occasionally  clean  out  the  oil-chambers  with  kerosene 
oil,  and  always  see  to  it  that  no  gum  is  formed  and  that 
the  oil-grooves  and  tubes  are  open. 

If  the  separator  shakes,  or  in  any  way  works  imper- 
fectly, find  the  cause  without  delay  and  remedy  it.  If  you 
fail  to  find  the  fault,  or  you  cannot  remedy  it  yourself, 
notify  the  manufacturer  or  his  agent,  and  have  him  attend 
to  it  at  once. 

Treatment  of  the  Cream. — As  the  cream  leaves  the  separa- 
tor, it  should  at  once  be  cooled  to  50°  or  lower.  This  in- 
sures "  body  "  in  the  butter,  and  should  not  be  neglected, 
at  least  not  unless  the  cream  is  thoroughly  chilled  after  it 
Is  ripened,  before  churning. 

LOSS    OF   BUTTER    CAUSED    BY   INEFFICIENT 
SKIMMING. 

If  three-tenths  of  one  per  cent  of  fat  is  left  in  the  skim- 
milk,  instead  of  two-tenths,  in  a  separator  creamery  receiv- 
ing 1000  lbs.  of  milk  a  day,  there  will  be  a  loss  of  about  340 
lbs.  of  butter  for  the  whole  year,  on  the  supposition  that 
1000  lbs.  of  milk  yield  800  lbs.  of  skim-milk,  and  I  lb.  of 
butter  contains  .86  lbs.  of  fat.  If  the  separation  is  still 
poorer,  greater  losses  will  be  sustained,  as  will  be  seen  in 
the  table  given  below.     (Friis.) 


Excess  of  Fat  Left  in  Skim-milk. 

Lbs.  of  Milk 

per  Day. 

.05  per  cent. 

.10  per  cent. 

.20  per  cent. 

.30  per  cent. 

Loss  of  Butter  During  Whole  Year. 

1,000 

170 

340 

680 

1,020 

2,000 

340 

680 

1300 

2.040 

3,000 

510 

I030 

2040 

3,060 

4,000 

680 

1360 

2720 

4,089 

5,000 

850 

1700 

3400 

5,100 

6,000 

1020 

2040 

4080 

6,I30 

7,000 

1 190 

2380 

4760 

7,140 

8,000 

1360 

3729 

5440 

8,160 

9,000 

1530 

3060 

6 1 20 

9,180 

10,000 

1700 

3400 

6800 

10,200 

286 


DAIRYIITG. 


STANDARDIZATIOX   OF    CREAM.    (Erf.) 

Percentage  Quantity  of  Cream  of  a  Desired  Fat  Content  madb 
FROM  Cream  of  a  Certain  Fat  Content  by  Diluting  with 
Milk  Containing  4  Per  Cent  of  Butter  Fat. 


Per  Cent 
Fat  in 
Cream 

on  Hand. 

Cream  of  Desired  Fat  Content. 

17 

20 

22 

25 

27 

30 

18 

92.857 
86.666 
81 .250 
76.4706 
72. 2222 
68. 4222 
65 .0000 
6 I .905 
59.0909 
56.5217 
54. 1666 
52.0000 
50.0000 

19 
20 

100 
94.706 
88.8888 
84. 2222 
80.0000 
76.1905 
72.7272 
69.5651 
66.6666 
64.0000 
61.5385 

21 

22 

100 
94-2125 
90.0000 

85-7143 
81.8181 
78.2608 
75.0000 
72 .0000 
69. 2308 

23 
24 
25 
26 

100 
95-4545 
01.3044 
87.5000 
84.0000 
80. 3461 

27 
28 
29 
30 

100 

95-8333 
92.0000 
88.4615 

100.00 

If  cream  is  to  be  standardized  with  4  per  cent  milk,  the  result  found 
by  the  intersecting  columns  represents  the  pounds  per  hundred,  or  the 
per  cent  of  the  quantity  which  is  crea:n  of  the  per  cent  fat  on  hand. 

Example. — If  cream  containing  20  per  cent  of  butter  fat  is  desired, 
and  cream  containing  26  per  cent  of  fat  is  on  hand,  then  72.7  per  cent 
of  the  quantity  desired  must  be  cream  containing  26  per  cent  of  fat, 
and  27.3  per  cent  of  the  quantity  must  be  4 per  cent  milk.  (See  111. 
Bull.  No.  75;  also  p.  272.) 

STEAM   BOILER   AND   ENGINE   MANAGEMENT. 

By  Prof.  A.   W.    Richtek,  of  the  University  of  ^luntana. 

Boiler. 

Fffcf  Apparatus. — Every  boiler  should  be  provided  with  a 
check-valve,  placed  between  the  feed  apparatus  and  boiler,  and 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  have  the  weight  of  the  valve  assist  in 
closing  it.  Between  this  check-valve  and  boiler  there  should  be 
an  additional  globe  or  gate-valve  which  may  be  closed,  thus 
permitting  repairing  or  cleaning  of  the  check-valve  while  the 
boiler  is  in  operation. 

Water  Sitpply. — Feed-water  should  enter  a  boiler  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  plates  do  not  receive  the  direct  impact  of  cold 
water.  The  usual  practice  is  to  have  the  feed  enter  through 
the  blow-off  pipe,  thus  preventing  this  pipe  from  clogging.  The 
feed  supply  should  be  regulated  so  as  to  keep  the  water  level 
as  stationary  as  possible.  The  greatest  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  water  level  does  not  fall  below  the  top  of  the  flues.  Neg- 
lect in  this  direction  will  cause  the  metal  to  become  overheated 
and  consequently  weakened,  causing  leakage  of  joints  and  in- 


CKEAM.  287 

creased  wear  and  tear,  but  more  often  resulting  in  an  explosion 
of  a  more  or  less  serious  nature. 

Water-glass  ajid  Water-gauges. — Every  boiler  should  have 
three  water-gauges  in  addition  to  a  water-glass  ;  these  are 
usually  attached  to  a  hollow  cast-iron  cylinder  or  tube  con- 
nected with  the  water  and  steam  spaces. 

The  water-glass  should  be  blown  out  daily,  and,  if  clogged, 
can  be  safely  cleaned  with  a  bent  wire. 

In  no  case  should  the  water  glass  alone  be  depended  upon  to 
indicate  the  water  level. 

Steam-gauge. — Each  boiler  should  be  provided  with  a  steam- 
gauge,  which  gauge  should  be  directly  connected  with  it. 

Safety-valve. — Every  boiler  should  be  provided  with  a  safety- 
valve  having  direct  communication  with  the  steam  space,  and 
there  should,  moreover,  be  an  intervening  valve.  Some  of 
the  most  disastrous  explosions  can  be  traced  to  faulty  ar- 
rangement in  this  respect.  The  valve  thoughtlessly  left 
closed  after  cleaning  or  repairs  prevents  the  safety-valve 
from  relieving  the  pressure  when  it  rises  above  the  safe 
working  pressure  of  the  boiler. 

Safety-valves  are  of  two  kinds :  spring  and  lever  safety- 
valves.  Of  the  two  valves  the  lever-valve  has  the  most  dis- 
advantages, one  of  the  most  important  being  the  ease  with 
which  it  may  be  made  useless  by  adding  an  additional  weight 
to  that  already  provided,  in  order  to  keep  the  valve  on  its  seat, 
and  therefore  greatly  increasing  the  pressure  at  which  it  will 
blow  off. 

A  safety-valve  should  be  raised  each  day  by  hand  so  as  to 
allow  steam  to  escape;  this  prevents  clogging  and  rusting. 

The  dealer  will  usually  set  the  spring-valve  so  that  it  will 
blow  off  at  the  desired  pressure.  It  can  be  adjusted,  however, 
by  loosening  or  tightening  a  screw  provided  for  that  purpose. 

The  lever-valve  may  be  set  v,'ith  the  aid  of  the  following 
formula: 

_  bPA  —  Vb  —  w: 

7f  ' 

/—  distance  from  weight  to  fulcrum; 
b  ^         "  *'     valve  centre  to  fulcrum; 

c  =  distance  from  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  lever  of  the  ful- 
crum; 


•788  t)AlRYJK(J„ 

P  =  boilef  pressure; 

A  =  area  of  valve; 

jp^=  weight  of  valve; 

w  =       "        "  lever, 

JV  =  weight  hung  upon  the  lever. 

Firing.  —  Firing  should  be  gradual,  and  the  grate  kept  com- 
pletely covered  with  coal  or  ashes.  The  fire  should  not  be  more 
than  four  or  five  inches  deep  unless  the  pieces  of  coal  are  large, 
in  which  cise  the  depth  may  be  increased. 

The  fire-doors  and  flue-doors  should  not  be  opened  in  order  to 
keep  down  the  steam  pressure.  This  pi  actice  not  only  wastes 
fuel  but  is  injurious  to  the  boiler,  and  will  not  be  necessary  if 
the  boiler  is  properly  attended  to. 

Priming  or  Foaming. — Foaming  is  a  rapid  disturbance  of  the 
water,  in  consequence  of  which  it  rises  in  the  boiler  in  the  form 
of  sprav  or  foam;  it  is  usually  caused  by  dirty  water,  presence 
of  oil,  etc.,  the  boiler  not  having  been  cleaned  for  some  time  or 
n(>t  thoroughly  cleaned.  Foaming  may,  however,  be  due  to 
other  causes,  such  as  too  small  a  steam  space,  sudden  demand 
of  a  great  quantity  of  steam,  etc.  In  case  a  boiler  foams  all 
steam  connections  should  be  shut  off  and  the  fire  dampened  by 
means  of  a  fresh  supply  of  live  coal  or  ashes.  These  precau- 
tions will  usually  suffice  to  allow  the  water  to  settle,  and  to 
enable  one  to  ascertain  the  true  water  level.  If  the  glass  shows 
a  small  amount  of  water,  start  the  pump  or  injector,  and  fill  the 
boiler  to  a  point  between  the  second  and  third  gauge.  The 
boiler  may  then  be  blown  off  to  the  first  gauge  by  means  of  the 
surface  blow-off,  if  one  be  present,  and  if  not  present  the  regular 
blow-off  valve  may  be  used.  This  operation  being  repeated, 
the  impurities  are  gradually  diminished,  but  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  water  level  does  not  fall  below  the  top  of  the  flues. 
The  boilei  can  now  be  used  as  before,  but  in  all  cases  it  should 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  as  soon  as  possible. 

Ketnoval  of  Scale. — Potatoes,  about  eight  or  ten  in  number, 
are  sometimes  placed  in  the  boiler  after  cleaning.  Soda  or 
kerosene  may  also  be  injected  with  the  feed- water  in  quantity  to 
be  determined  by  observation.  Boiler  compounds  should  be 
used  with  caution,  and  when  used  should  be  obtained  from  a 
reliable  dealer.  Too  great  a  quantity  of  anv  of  the  above  will 
be  harmful. 


CREAM.  ^  289 

Cleav.in[^. — The  Interval  during  which  a  boiler  requires  no 
cfeaning  depends  upon  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  water 
evaporated.  Under  usual  conditions,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
best  results,  a  boiler  should  be  cleaned  every  six  or  eight  weeks. 

If  a  boiler  is  to  be  cleaned  it  should  be  allowed  to  stand  until 
it  is  partially  cooled  off.  When  blown  out  cold  the  metal  in  the 
interior  will  usually  be  found  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  soft 
deposit,  which  can  easily  be  scraped  off  or  washed  off  with  a 
hose  and  stream  of  water. 

If  a  boiler  be  blown  off  while  the  metal  is  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture, the  deposited  matter  is  usually  baked  and  forms  a  solid  and 
hard  coating,  increasing  rapidly  if  not  carefully  removed  by  the 
process  of  chipping. 

Boiler  Poiucr. — The  manner  in  which  the  horse-power  of  a 
boiler  is  usually  calculated  is  far  from  satisfactory,  depending 
rather  upon  its  size  than  its  power  of  evaporation. 

In  1S84  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers 
adopted  the  following  definite  standard: 

"  A  horse-power  shall  be  equivalent  to  an  evaporation  of 
thirty  pounds  of  water  into  dry  steam  per  hour  from  feed- 
water  at  100^  Fahrenheit,  and  under  a  pressure  of  70  lbs.  per 
square  inch  above  the  atmosphere." 

Steam-engine. — The  engine  should  be  provided  with  a  gov- 
ernor to  regulate  its  speed,  a  lubricator  to  oil  valve  and  piston, 
and  a  sufficient  number  of  oil  cups,  so  that  all  bearings  may  be 
properly  oiled. 

Stai'ting  the  Engine. — Before  starting,  all  bearings  should  be 
supplied  with  oil,  and  all  waste  pipes  connected  with  cylinder 
and  steam-chest  opened.  The  engine  should  then  be  started 
slowly,  so  as  to  allow  the  water  to  escape.  A  quantity  of  steam 
will  always  condense  as  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  cold 
cylinder- walls,  in  addition  to  the  water  already  present  in  the 
steam-pipe.  This  water  does  not  pass  off  as  readily  as  steam, 
neither  can  it  be  compressed  to  any  great  extent.  Therefore, 
if  more  water  be  present  in  the  cylinder  than  will  fill  the  clear- 
ance space,  and  this  water  not  be  allowed  to  escape,  the  piston 
moving  towards  the  end  of  its  stroke  will  strike  the  water,  and 
consequently  be  compelled  to  stop.  The  greater  the  speed  of 
the  piston  as  it  advances,  the  greater  the  force  with  which  it 
strikes  the  water,  resulting  in  many  cases  in  a  broken  cylinder 
bead. 


290  DAIRYIl^G. 

It  IS  well  to  have  a  waste-pipe  connected  to  the  steam-pipe  at 
a  point  just  above  the  engine- valve,  in  order  that  the  water 
which  has  collected  in  the  steam  pipe  may  be  blown  out  before 
opening  the  steam-valve. 

After  the  engine  has  been  in  operation  for  a  minute  or  two 
the  waste-valves  should  be  closed. 

Horse-power, — The  horse-power  of  an  engine  may  be  calcu- 
lated by  means  of  the  following  formula: 

H.  P.  =  ^^" 


33000 

H.  P.  =  horse  power; 

P  =  mean  effective  pressure  in  the  cylinder; 
L  =  twice  the  length  of  the  stroke,  in  feet; 
a  =  area  of  piston  in  square  inches; 
«=  number  of  revolutions  per  minute. 

0\    THI]    l»HESi:UVATI()X    OF   31  ILK    AND  CREAM 

BY    JIKAT. 

By  Dr.   U.  L.  Russell,  of  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station, 
Author  of  "Dairy  Bacteriologry". 

On  account  of  the  innumerable  bacteria  that  gain  access 
to  milk  during  the  process  of  milking,  and  subsequent  to 
that  time,  and  the  rapid  increase  of  the  same  in  this  nutri- 
tious fluid,  this  material  universally  undergoes  fermentative 
changes,  the  rapidity  of  which  is  largely  dependent  upon 
the  surrounding  temperature.  To  increase  the  keeping 
quality  of  milk,  it  is  necessary  to  annihilate  these  bacteria 
or  keep  them  under  influences  unfavorable  to  their  growth. 

Heat  has  been  found  to  be  the  most  efficacious  agent  in 
preserving  milk  in  its  natural  condition.  It  is  applied  in 
two  ways,  viz.,  i.  Pasteurization,  where  the  milk  or  cream 
is  heated  for  a  short  time  (20-30  min.)  at  a  temperature  near 
the  coagulating  point  of  the  proteid  constituents  of  the  milk 
(i50°-i6o°  F.).  2.  Stei'ilization,  where  the  temperature  ap- 
proximates or  exceeds  the  boiling-point  and  is  applied  for 
a  longer  time. 

The  object  in  both  cases  is  to  kill  the  bacteria  present  in 
the  milk. 


CREAM.  291 

Sterilization  accomplishes  this  most  successfully,  but  it 
changes  the  proteid  compounds  so  that  the  milk  has  an  un- 
desirable " cooked "  flavor  and  odor. 

This  defect  is  not  found  in  pasteurized  milk,  and  if  prop- 
erly handled,  milk  treated  by  this  process  will  remain  sweet 
from  4  to  8  days. 

For  use  in  the  near  future  the  pasteurized  product  is,  on 
the  whole,  the  most  satisfactory;  the  sterilized  material  being 
best  adapted  for  export  purposes. 

The  essential  condition  in  pasteurization  is  that  the  pas- 
teurizing temperature  shall  exceed  the  thermal  death  point 
(the  temperature  at  which  growing  bacteria  are  destroyed) 
of  disease-producing  as  well  as  fermentative  bacteria.  This 
temperature  for  most  forms  is  about  140"  F.,  but  certain  dis- 
ease organisms  like  the  tubeicle  germ  of  tuberculosis  is  not 
killed  below  149  F.  for  30  minutes,  or  155°  F.  for  15  minutes. 
As  this  germ  is  often  found  in  milk  from  tuberculous  cows, 
prudence  dictates  the  use  of  this  temperature  as  a  standard 
for  the  pasteurization  of  milk  and  cream.  The  proteids  in 
the  milk  are  slightly  affected  at  this  temperature,  but  if  the 
milk  is  thoroughly  chilled,  the  "cooked"  flavor  disappears. 

The  application  of  this  temperature  kills  only  the  growing 
bacteria,  and  does  not  affect  the  latent  spores.  If  after 
being  heated  the  milk  is  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  and  is  left 
at  a  comparatively  warm  temperature  (exceeding  55"  F.), 
these  spores  germinate  and  soon  change  the  character  of  the 
milk,  so  that  the  value  of  the  heating  process  is  lost.  To  be 
efficient,  it  is  necessary  to  rapidly  coo\  the  pasteurized  prod- 
uct below  the  germinating  point  of  the  spores,  for  if  they  are 
once  allowed  to  sprout,  they  will  develop  slowly  at  a  very 
low  temperature. 

In  pasteurizing  milk  or  cream,  the  apparatus  should  be 
constructed  so  that  a  definite  quantity  of  the  fluid  can  be 
held  at  any  desired  temperature  for  any  length  of  time,  and 
during  the  process  protected  from  infection  from  the  air. 
The  apparatus  must  also  be  made  so  as  to  be  easily  cleaned 
and  thoroughly  sterilized  by  steam  throughout.  The  milk 
must  be  protected  from  air  infection  during  its  withdrawal 
from  the  pasteurizing  vat  into    storage  vessels  (cans  and 


292  DAIRYING. 

bottles),  and  should  be  thoroughly  chilled  in  a  refrigerator 
for  several  hours  (better  over  night)  before  being  delivered 
lo  the  consumer.  This  chilling  process  should  succeed  the 
heating  operation  as  quickly  as  possible,  as  the  sudden 
transition  in  temperature  from  155°  F.  to  55°  F.  or  less  has 
a  paralyzing  effect  on  the  development  of  those  organisms 
(spores)  that  are  not  killed  by  the  heat.  The  machines  that 
have  been  put  on  the  market  have  for  the  most  part  been 
designed  primarily  from  the  dairyman's  standpoint,  and 
while  they  fulfill  their  requirements  as  to  capacity,  cheap- 
ness, etc.,  yet  they  cannot  in  general  be  relied  upon  to  treat 
the  milk  in  a  way  so  as  to  free  it  with  certainty  from  all  pos- 
sible disease-producing  bacteria.  The  Potts'  Pasteurizer, 
which  has  been  sold  quite  extensively  in  this  country  during 
late  years,  may,  however,  be  considered  an  entirely  satis- 
factory and  practical  machine. 

Pasteurization  in  this  country  is  applied  with  great  suc- 
cess to  milk  and  cream  where  these  products  are  used  in 
the  liquid  form.  It  is  used  to  some  extent  in  this  country, 
but  much  more  widely  in  continental  Europe,  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  cream  for  the  manufacture  of  butter  by  the  use  of  a 
pure  culture-starter.  It  can  also  be  used  advantageously 
in  the  hot  months  for  increasing  the  length  of  time  that 
by-products  of  the  factory  like  skim-milk  and  whey  may  be 
preserved. 

Pasteurization,  as  well  as  sterilization,  reduces  the  body, 
consistency,  of  milk  and  cream,  and  these  products  therefor 
seem  thinner  after  having  been  subjected  to  the  process  of 
heating  than  before.  To  obviate  this.  Dr.  Babcock  and 
the  writer  in  1S96  recommended  the  addition  of  a  smaU 
quantity  of  a  solution  of  sucrate  of  lime  ('*  viscogen  ")  ta 
the  milk  or  cream,  which  will  restore  the  consistency  of  the 
products,  and  in  case  of  cream,  greatly  increase  its  whip- 
ping quality.  (See  Bull.  No.  54  or  thirteenth  report  ol 
Wisconsin  Experiment  Station.) 


• 


CEEAM.  293 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  THK  STERITilZATION  OF  MILK. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

The  sterilization  of  milk  for  children,  now  quite  exten- 
sively practised  in  order  to  destroy  the  injurious  gefms 
which  it  may  contain,  can  be  satisfactorily  accomplished 
with  very  simple  apparatus.  The  vessel  containing  the 
milk,  which  may  be  the  bottle  from  which  it  is  to  be  used 
or  any  other  suitable  vessel,  is  placed  inside  of  a  larger 
vessel  of  metal,  which  contains  the  water.  If  a  bottle,  it  is 
plugged  with  absorbent  cotton,  if  this  is  at  hand,  or  in  its 
absence,  othei  clean  cotton  will  answer.  A  small  fruit-jar 
loosely  covered  may  be  used  instead  of  a  bottle.  The  re- 
quirements are  simply  that  the  interior  vessel  shall  be  raised 
about  half  an  inch  above  the  bottom  of  the  other,  and  that 
the  water  shall  reach  nearly  or  quite  as  high  as  the  milk. 
The  apparatus  is  then  heated  on  a  range  or  stove  until  the 
water  reaches  a  temperature  of  155  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
when  it  is  removed  from  the  heat  and  kept  tightly  covered 
for  half  an  hour.  The  milk-bottles  are  then  taken  out  and 
kept  in  a  cool  place.  The  milk  may  be  used  any  time  within 
twenty-four  hours.  A  temperature  of  150  degrees  main- 
tained for  half  an  hour  is  sufficient  to  destroy  any  germs 
likely  to  be  present  in  the  milk,  and  it  is  found  in  practice 
that  raising  the  temperature  to  155  degrees  and  then  allow- 
ing it  to  stand  in  the  heated  water  for  half  an  hour  insures 
the  proper  temperature  for  the  required  time.  The  tempera- 
ture should  not  be  raised  above  155  degrees,  otherwise  the 
taste  and  quality  of  the  milk  will  be  impaired. 

The  simplest  plan  is  to  take  a  tin  pail  and  invert  a  per- 
forated tin  pie-plate  in  the  bottom,  or  have  made  for  it  a 
removable  false  bottom  perforated  with  holes  and  having 
legs  half  an  inch  high  to  allow  circulation  of  the  water. 
The  milk-bottle  is  set  on  this  false  bottom,  and  sufficient 
water  is  put  into  the  pail  to  reach  the  level  of  the  surface 
of  the  milk  in  the  bottle.  A  hole  may  be  punched  in  the 
cover  of  the  pail,  a  cork  inserted,  and  a  chemical  thermom 
eter  put  through  the  cork,  so  that  the  bulb  dips  into  the 
water.     The  temperature  can   thus  be  watched  without  re- 


294  DAIRTIN'G. 

moving  the  cover.  If  preferred  an  ordinary  dairy  ther- 
mometer may  be  used  and  the  temperature  tested  from  time 
to  time  by  removing  the  lid.  This  is  very  easily  arranged, 
and  is  just  as  satisfactory  as  the  patented  apparatus  sold 
for  the  same  purpose. 

QUANTITY    OF    WATER   OR  ICE  REQUIRED  FOR 
COOLING    3IILK    OR   CREAM.     (Martiny.) 

The  quantity  of  water  or   ice   required  to  cool   milk    or 
cream  may  be  calculated  from  the  following  formulas,  where 

M ^=  quantity  of  milk  or  cream  to  be  cooled,  in  lbs. 

/  =■  its  temperature. 
W  =^  quantity  of  water  required  for  cooling,  in  lbs. 

t'  =  temperature  of  water  or  ice  at  beginning. 
Z"  =  end  temperature  of  cooled  milk  or  cream. 
r  =  end  temperature  of  cooling  water. 
S  =  specific  heat  of  milk  (-95*)  or  of  cream  (.92*). 
79.25  =  latent  heat  of  water. 

{a)    Water  j-equired for  coolini^  milk  or  creajti — 

1.  Cooled  in  tin  cans  holding  milk  or  cream  to  be  cooled: 

r,r      i^^t  -  MT)S 

W  ^  — r ; 

T  —1! 

2.  By  application  of  coolers  and  running  water: 

^^r^{Mt-  MT)S 

T  —  t' 

{b)   Ice  required  for  cooling  milk  or  cream — 

{Mt  -  MT)S 


/  = 


rn-  /■  X  79-25 


In  these  formulas  the  influence  of  the  surrounding  air  is 
not  considered. 

*  Figures  subject  to  variations  ;  in  practice  the  sp.  heat  of  both  milk  and 
cream  may  be  assumed  =  i. — W. 


BUTTER.  295 


IV.  BUTTER. 

BUTTE  R-3IAKI\G. 

By  H.   B.   GuRLER,  ex-President   111.   State   Dairymen's  Assn.,  Author 
of  "The  Farm  Dairy." 

Butter  is  made  from  milk.  The  cow  manufactures  the 
milk  from  the  food  she  eats,  hence  the  necessity  jf  sound 
food.  Unsound  food  makes  off-fiavored  milk  and  poor 
butter.  Some  cows  can  manufacture  food  into  milk  at  a 
profit,  others  cannot;  hence  the  necessity  of  knowing  the 
individuality  of  each  cow,  or  her  ability  to  work  at  a  profit 
to  her  owner. 

At  this  stage  of  the  dairy  work  there  is  no  excuse  for  a 
dairyman  not  knowing  what  each  and  every  cow  is  doing 
for  him,  thus  being  able  to  "weed  out"  the  unprofitable 
ones. 

Be  careful  and  cleanly  in  milking.  Remove  the  milk  to 
a  pure  atmosphere  as  soon  as  drawn  from  the  cows.  If  the 
cream  is  raised  by  gravity  process  be  careful  of  the  sur- 
roundings, as  milk  will  absorb  bad  odors  from  decayed 
vegetables,  the  hog-pen,  the  cow-yard,  the  kerosene-can,  a 
filthy  stable,  from  cooking  in  the  kitchen,  and  various  other 
sources. 

When  milk  is  put  through  the  separator  as  soon  as  it  is 
drawn  from  the  cow  this  source  of  danger  is  removed. 
Cream  from  the  separator  should  be  cooled  immediately  to 
a  temperature  of  60°;  55°  is  better.  A  cooler  that  will 
aerate  at  the  same  time  it  is  cooling  is  very  desirable.  This 
is  a  vital  point  which  many  butter-makers  stumble  over. 
When  through  separating  and  cooling,  temper  the  cream  to 
the  temperature  necessary  to  have  it  ripen  at  the  time  you 
wish  to  churn.  If  it  is  to  be  churned  the  following  day  this 
temperature  should  be  65°-7o^.  If  the  second  day,  55-60°; 
and  if  it  is  to  stand  four  to  seven  days,  cool  to  40°,  if  possi- 


296  DAIRYING. 

ble,  as  soon  as  practicable,  and  hold  at  that  temperature 
until  the  day  before  you  wish  to  churn,  when  it  should  be 
warmed  to  a  temperature  that  will  give  the  right  acidity  by 
the  time  you  wish  to  churn.  This  temperature  will  depend 
on  the  kind  of  cream,  whether  separator  cream  or  cream 
from  some  gravity  process.  Cream  from  shallow  setting 
may  be  sufficiently  ripened  when  taken  from  the  milk.  I 
recommend  the  use  of  Prof.  Farrington's  acid  tablets  for 
testing  the  acidity  of  cream  (see  p.  270).  They  are  a  great 
help  to  a  beginner. 

Churn  at  as  low  a  temperature  as  you  can.  This  will  de- 
pend on  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  cream.  Rich  cream  can 
be  churned  at  a  much  lov.-er  temperature  than  cream  poor 
in  fat.  Cream  from  deep,  cold  setting  may  be  churned  at 
58"  to  62°;  and  thick,  rich  cream  from  shallow  setting  at 
a  much  lower  temperature.  An  ironclad  rule  cannot  be 
made  that  will  fit  all  cases.  The  separator  will  give  cream 
containing  various  per  cent  of  fat,  from  15  to  40  per  cent. 
Separator  cream  containing  15  per  cent  fat  will  need  to  be 
churned  at  about  the  same  temperature  as  deep,  cold  setting 
cream.  Separator  cream  containing  40  per  cent  can  be 
churned  at  a  temperature  of  50,  can  be  gathered  at  50  ,  so 
the  buttermilk  will  draw  at  that  temperature.  A  low  tem- 
perature gives  the  most  exhaustive  churning.  At  this  tem- 
perature the  buttermilk  should  contain  no  more  fat  than 
the  average  separator  skim-milk.  Cream  containing  a  large 
per  cent  of  fat  does  not  develop  acid  as  fast  as  cream  with 
more  milk  in  it.  Cool  cream  for  churning  about  two  hours 
before,  so  as  to  let  the  butter-fat  have  time  to  solidify  or 
harden.     This  gives  a  more  waxy  texture  to  the  butter. 

Stop  the  churn  when  the  butter  granules  are  the  size  of 
wheat.  If  the  granules  are  too  small  there  is  danger  of  a 
loss  from  its  passing  through  the  strainer.  Wash  no  more 
than  is  necessary  to  remove  the  buttermilk.  The  colder  it 
is  churned  the  less  washing  is  needed.  When  butter  gathers 
at  54  one  washing  is  sufficient  ;  if  at  62"  to  64°,  two  or 
three  washings  will  be  needed.  Washing  removes  some 
of  the  delicate  flavor  or  aroma.  Remove  the  water  from 
the  churn  as  soon   as    possible — as  soon  as  it  has  done  its 


BUTTER.  297 

work.  Never  allow  it  to  lie  and  soak  unless  there  is  no 
other  way  of  hardening  the  butter  to  a  temperature  where 
you  can  handle  it. 

Salt  to  suit  your  trade.  Work  once  or  twice,  as  you  pre- 
fer; twice  working  is  preferable,  as  it  makes  the  nicer-ap- 
pearing butter.  Work  just  enough  to  remove  the  mottled 
or  streaked  appearance.  When  worked  twice  this  can  be 
told  at  the  time  by  the  appearance  of  the  butter.  When 
worked  but  once  it  cannot  be  told  until  the  butter  has  stood 
long  enough  for  the  salt  to  dissolve.  If  worked  but  once 
examine  the  butter  the  following  day,  until  you  make  your- 
self a  rule  of  thumb  to  work  by.  I  have  found  this  neces- 
sary. I  am  compelled  to  look  after  this  point  in  my 
creamery  work  when  the  butter  is  worked  but  once.  Use 
the  kind  of  butter-package  that  suits  your  trade,  but  always 
let  it  be  neat.  Never  send  a  mussy-looking  package  to 
market.     You  cannot  afford  to  do  it. 

ON    THE   USE   OF   PURE   CULTURES    IN   BUTTER- 
AXD  CHEESE  31 AKING. 

The  ripening  of  cream  is  brought  about  through  the  action 
of  minute  plants,  so-called  bacteiia.  These  are  practically 
omnipresent  where  man  lives,  and  get  into  the  milk  during 
the  milking  and  the  handling  of  the  milk  and  cream  in  the 
dairy.  They  multiply  enormously  in  the  cream  during  the 
ripening  process,  owing  to  the  very  favorable  conditions  of 
life  which  they  find  there.  Some  forms  of  bacteria  are  de- 
sirable and  even  essential  in  the  manufacture  of  sour-cream 
butter;  these  feed  largely  on  the  milk-sugar  of  the  cream, 
arid  decompose  this  component  into  lactic  acid,  which  is  the 
characteristic  acid  of  sour  cream  (as  well  as  of  sour  milk). 
-\long  with  this  formation  of  lactic  acid  in  the  cream  other 
complicated,  and  yet  but  little  understood,  decomposition 
processes  take  place,  the  results  of  which  show  themselves  in 
the  fine  aromatic  flavor  of  the  butter  produced.  Other  forms  of 
bacteria  cause  obnoxious  fermentations  in  the  cream,  and  produce 
a  butter  of  "off"  flavor,  in  aggravated  cases  making  the  product 
unfit  *o  eat  or  at  least  unsalable  as  a   first-class  article.     The 


298  DAIRYING. 

process  of  sour-cream  butter-making  is  therefore,  at  the  bottom, 
a  question  of  keeping  the  fermentations  during  the  ripening  of 
the  cream  in  the  right  track,  of  controUing  the  same  so  as  to 
exclude  all  but  lactic-acid-producing  bacteria.  The  old 
original  way  of  reaching  this  end  was  to  allow  the  cream 
to  sour  spontaneously,  trusting  to  luck  to  obtain  the  desired 
fermentation  of  the  cream  by  leaving  it  standing  in  a  warm 
room  for  a  couple  of  days.  Later  on,  a  buttermilk  starter 
from  a  preceding  churning  or  a  skim-milk  starter  was  added 
for  the  purpose  of  ripening  the  cream  ;  by  this  means 
the  lactic-acid  bacteria  contained  in  the  starter  were  intro- 
duced in  such  large  numbers  that  they  generally  were  able  to 
crowd  out  other  kinds  of  bacteria  that  might  be  found  in  the 
cream,  and  which,  if  left  alone,  would  produce  undesirable 
fermentations  in  the  cream  and  bad  flavor  in  the  butter. 
The  next  step  in  advance  was  the  introduction  of  pure 
cultures  of  lactic-acid  bacteria;  these  consist  of  one  or  a 
few  forms  of  bacteria,  and  when  introduced  in  milk  or 
cream  will  be  apt  to  overpower  all  other  forms  of  bacteria 
therein,  and  thus  produce  the  pure  mild  flavor  of  sour- 
cream  butter  desired. 

The  honor  of  having  first  introduced  pure  cultures  in 
butter-making  belongs  to  Dr.  V.  Storch,  the  chemist  of 
the  Danish  state  experiment  station  in  Copenhagen;  the 
bulletin  describing  Dr.  Storch's  investigations  of  this 
subject,  "On  the  Ripening  of  Cream,"  was  published  in 
1890.  Other  bacteriologists  in  Europe  and  in  this  country 
have  worked  along  this  same  line,  and  as  a  result  we  find 
that  pure  cultures  are  at  the  present  time  used  almost 
universally  in  the  manufacture  of  sour-cream  butter  in 
the  creameries  and  dairies  of  northern  Europe,  and  also 
in  this  country  their  use  has  become  general  and  is  spread- 
ing. The  expected  result  of  adding  a  pure  culture-starter, 
viz.,  that  of  excluding  all  undesirable  fermentations  in 
the  ripening  of  the  cream,  will  not,  however,  follow  with 
any  certainty  unless  the  seeding  with  the  pure  culture 
is  preceded  by  pasteurization  or  sterilization  of  the  cream, 
that  is,  at  least  a  partial  destruction  of  the  bacteria  already 
found   therein.     In   Europe,  notably  in   Denmark  and  the 


BUTTER.  299 

other  Scandinavian  countries,  pasteurization  tf  th  •  milk  (or 
of  the  cream)  is  practised  regularly  in  all  the  best  creameries, 
in  the  former  country  at  present  in  perhaps  95  per  cent  of  the 
creameries  in  operation.  In  this  country  the  firms  manufactur- 
ing and  selling  pure  cultures  unfortunately  did  not  insist  on 
this  point  at  the  start,  and  where  pure  culture -starters  were  used 
with  us  it  was  nearly  always  without  previous  pasteurization. 
One  reason  why  pasteurization  has  not  been  generally  adopted 
in  the  manufacture  of  butter  in  this  country  is  that  the  market 
demands  a  higher  flavored,  "stronger"  butter  than  is  wanted 
by  the  luiropean  market,  and  the  pure  cultures  on  the  market, 
when  used  with  pasteurized  cream,  do  not  produce  such  a  butter. 
T  .e  expense  of  pasteurization  of  the  cream  and  the  absence  of 
proper  aj)paratus,  or  non-intn^duction  of  such  as  have  proved 
successful  in  European  practice,  furthermore  tend  to  explain 
why  our  butter-makers  do  not  generally  pasteurize  the  cream 
in  using  pure  culture-starters.  During  late  years,  however, 
pasteurization  of  cream  has  become  more  general  in  American 
creameries. 

The  five  pure  cultures  now  on  the  market  in  this  country  are 
Chr.  Hansen's  Lactic  Ferment  (Chr.  Hansen's  Laboratory,  Little 
Fells,  N.  Y.),  Ericsson  Butter  Culture  (Elov.  Ericsson,  St.  Paul, 
Minn.),  Flavorone  (Parke,  Davis  &  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich.),  Elgin 
Butler  Culture  (Creamery  Pkg.  Mfg.  Co.,  Chicago,  111.),  and  the 
Boston  Butter  Culture  (O.  Douglas  Improved  Boston  Butter  Cul- 
ture Co.,  Boston,  Mass.).  These  cultures  are  placed  on  the 
market  in  dry  form  as  a  powder,  or  in  liquid  form.  Directions 
for  their  use  accompany  each  package  sold.  In  general,  the 
method  to  be  followed  is  to  seed  the  culture  in  a  quantity  of 
sterilized  skim-milk  or  cream;  this  is  kept  for  one  to  two  days  at 
a  temperature  below  90°;  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  starter  is  then 
added  and  mixed  with  the  cream  to  be  ripened;  some  makers 
add  considerably  more  than  this  amount.  The  cream  will  be 
ready  for  churning  the  next  day.  A  ])ortion  of  the  starter 
prepared  is  used  for  the  see  ing  of  a  new  lot  of  sterilized 
skim-milk  which  will  make  the  starter  for  the  following  day, 
and  the  same  {process  is  continued  until  deterioration  of  the 
starter  sets  in,  as  shown  by  lack  of  flavor  in  the  ripened  cream 
and  in  the  butter;    a  fresh  batch  is  then  prepared  from  a  new 


300  DAlllYING. 

package  of  ferment.  If  proper  care  in  sterilizing  the  skim -milk 
and  in  handling  the  starter  is  taken,  the  pure  culture  mav  be 
propagated  in  this  manner  for  months.  \\'ith  lack  of  cleanliness 
and  care  it  must  be  renewed  every  other  week  or  oftener. 

While  the  use  of  pure  cultures  has  not  as  yet  become 
general  in  American  creameries,  the  agitation  caused  by 
their  introduction  and  the  discussions  in  dairy  papers  and 
dairy  meetings  which  they  have  brought  about  have  doubt- 
less been  of  great  benefit  to  our  dairy  industry  in  empha- 
sizing in  the  minds  of  butter-makers  the  necessity  of 
thorough  cleanliness  in  the  creamery  and  the  importance 
of  the  proper  conduct  of  the  ripening  process  for  the 
manufacture  of  high-grade  butter.  They  have  enabled  us 
to  make  butter  of  uniform  fine  flavor  and  of  greater  keep- 
ing quality  than  was  previously  possible. 

VV^here  abnormal  fermentations  appear,  and  the  butter 
produced  is  diseased  or  "off  flavor,"  the  evil  may  be 
remedied  by  the  use  of  pure  cultures.  In  case  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  export  trade  of  American  butter  of  high 
quality,  the  pure  cultures  used  in  connection  with  previous 
pasteurization  of  the  milk  or  cream  will  prove  of  great 
benefit,  insuring  uniform  goods  and  perfect  keeping  quality 
in  the  product. 

The  use  of  pure  culture-starters  in  the  manufacture  of 
Cheddar  cheese  is  of  recent  date,  and  but  limited  experience 
has  so  far  been  gained  in  this  line.  According  to  the 
testimony  of  some  of  our  leading  cheese-makers,  and  of 
recent  experiments  conducted  at  Wisconsin  experiment 
station,  their  use  for  this  purpose  is  very  beneficial,  cheese 
of  improved,  clean  flavor  and  high  keeping  qualities  being 
produced.  Pure  cultures  may  therefore  be  safely  recom- 
mended lor  this  purpose.  The  general  method  of  applica- 
tion is  similar  to  that  followed  in  the  manufacture  of  pure 
culture  butter.  The  starter  is  propagated  in  sterilized 
milk  and  kept  at  9o"F.  for  one  day,  when  it  will  be  slightly 
lobbered,  having  an  acidity  of  about  .8  per  cent.  Prof. 
Decker,  late  of  the  Wisconsin  Dairy  School,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing  hints  on  the  use  of  the  starter  by  the  cheese-maker  : 

"The  starter  is  introduced   into  the   milk   by  rubbing  it 


BUTTER.  301 

througli  a  fine  liair  sieve  so  as  to  break  up  curd  particles.  If 
too  large  quantities  of  starter  are  used,  there  is  a  tendency  to 
produce  a  sour  cheese.  The  best  results  are  obtained  when  a  2 
per  cent  starter,  of  the  acidity  given,  is  added. 

"In  propagating  the  starter  from  day  to  day  care  must  be 
taken  to  keep  it  free  from  contamination.  It  should  always  be 
prepared  in  a  covered  vessel  that  has  previously  been  sterilized, 
and  tlie  milk  used  should  first  be  pasteurized  (or  sterilized)  and 
cooled  before  adding  the  'seed.'  Some  of  the  original  starter 
should  be  taken  for  'seed,'  not  the  whole  milk  after  the  starter 
has  been  added. 

'''  The  starter  cannot  be  used  for  cheese-making  if  the  milk 
is  overripe,  which  is  the  case  when  the  rennet  test  is  65 
seconds  or  under  (see  p.  282).  In  sweet  milk,  testing  by 
the  rennet  test  120  seconds,  the  addition  of  a  2  per  cent 
starter  will  increase  the  acidity,  so  that  the  rennet  test  will 
act  in   70  seconds. 

"  With  sweet  milk  the  use  of  a  pure  lactic  starter  will 
result  in  the  saving  cf  3-5  hours  in  time.  With  tainted 
milk  in  which  the  acid  develops  imperfectly  the  addition 
of  the  starter  aids  in  producing  the  acidity  required  for  the 
manufacture  of  Cheddar  cheese." 

BOYD'S   PROCESS    OF    CUEAM    RIPEMXG. 

By  John  Bovd,  Chicago,  111. 

It  is  an  accepted  fact  that  the  fine  aromatic  flavor  and 
also  the  keeping  properties  of  butter  depend  largely  upon 
the  treatment  of  the  cream  from  the  time  it  is  separated 
from  the  milk  until  it  is  ready  for  the  churn,  that  is,  in 
the  best  possible  condition  to  yield  the  maximum  quantity 
and  the  best  quality  as  to  flavor,  texture,  solidity,  etc., 
free  from  casein  and  other  undesirable  substances.  This 
perfect  condition  of  cream  is  understood  by  tiie  term 
"  ripened  cream,"  and  when  this  condition  can  be  pro- 
duced by  the  butter-maker  with  uniformity,  regardless  of 
the  seasons  of  the  year  or  extremes  of  climate,  the  process 
may  be  reckoned  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible,  and  not 
until  then.     It  is  most  desirable  that  the  process  be  as  sim- 


302  DAIRYING. 

pie  as  possible,  In  fact  within  the  reach  of  every  creamery 
and  dairyman  in  the  country,  and  all  the  means  requi-red  to 
attain  these  results  can  and  should  be  a  part  of  every  dairy 
and  creamery,  large  or  small. 

Boyd's  process  or  system  of  ripening  cream  or  milk  is 
the  result  of  years  of  practical  work  in  a  private  dairy  of 
about  40  Jersey  cows.  After  it  had  been  thoroughly  tested 
and  used,  during  all  the  seasons  of  the  year,  it  was  pat- 
ented in  the  United  States,  Canada,  and  Great  Britain, 
and  given  to  the  public  in  the  year  i88g,  a  very  consider- 
able time  in  advance  of  any  of  the  artificial  meth.ods  of 
ripening,  now  being  advocated  under  the  representations 
of  "  pure  cultures  of  bacteria." 

When  first  introduced  it  was  met  by  a  sea  of  opposition 
from  the  experts,  who  would  see  nothing  good  in  it,  but 
gradually  it  has  been  making  its  way  in  a  quiet  manner 
into  popularity  until  at  present  it  is  being  successfully 
practised  in  every  state  in  the  Union,  and  is  gaining  favor 
every  day  with  the  most  practical  butter-makers. 

The  apparatus  necessary  to  practise  the  process  supplies 
all  the  conditions  required  to  produce  a  uniform  result  every 
day  in  the  year,  the  temperature  of  the  lactive  ferment 
and  also  of  the  cream  being  entirely  under  the  control  of 
the  operator  during  the  entire  process. 

The  directions  for  using  the  process,  which  go  with  every 
purchase  of  the  apparatus,  are  as  follows: 

To  make  the  Best  Ferment. — Take  milk  from  fresh-milk- 
ing cows  (that  from  pregnant  cows  will  not  answer);  sub- 
merge the  milk  warm  from  the  cows  in  Cooley  cans  in  ice 
water.  Skim  at  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours,  as  most  con- 
venient, and  use  this  skimmed  milk  for  making  the  fer- 
ment; or  select  milk  as  above,  run  it  through  a  separator, 
and  save  the  skimmed  milk  for  making  the  ferment. 

The  skimmed  milk  so  selected  is  then  brought  to  a  tem- 
perature of  90°,  in  a  water  bath,  being  constantly  stirred 
during  the  operation  of  heating.  As  soon  as  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  milk  reaches  90°,  place  it  in  the  fermenting-can 
and  close  the  cover  tightly,  having  first  rinsed  out  the  can 
with   warm   water.     Allow   the   can   to    remain   closed    for 


BUTTER.  303 

twenty  or  twenty-four  hours,  when  the  ferment  will  be 
found  thick  and  in  the  proper  condition  for  mixing  with 
the  cream  or  milk  to  be  ripened. 

Ho7v  to  use  the  Ferment, — First  bring  the  cream  or  milk 
in  the  vat  to  a  temperature  of  66°  to  70°  Fahrenheit,  when 
the  ferment  is  to  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  cream  or 
milk  in  the  proportion  of  2  per  cent  of  the  ferment  to  the 
amount  of  cream,  or  milk  to  be  ripened.  Remove  one  or 
two  inches  of  the  top  of  the  ferment,  which  is  not  desirable 
to  use,  and  strain  the  rest  through  a  fine  strainer  or  hair 
sieve  into  the  milk  or  cream.  The  finer  the  ferment  is 
broken  up  the  more  effective  its  operation  will  be.  After 
the  cream  or  milk  and  ferment  are  well  stirred  and  mixed 
at  the  above  temperature,  the  vat  must  be  closed  and  al- 
lowed to  remain  undisturbed  until  the  cream  is  ripened, 
requiring  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  hours  for  the  opera- 
tion; the  cream  when  ripe  will  be  found  thick,  mildly  acid, 
and  in  the  proper  chemical  condition,  requiring  only  to  be 
cooled  to  the  proper  temperature  for  churning. 

Churning. — The  best  temperature  for  churning  depends 
'JO  much  upon  circumstances  that  the  range  is  very  wide, 
from  55°  to  68°  Fahrenheit.  The  richer  the  cream  in  but- 
ter-fat the  colder  the  temperature  should  be,  and  the  more 
milk  the  cream  contains  the  higher  the  churning  tempera- 
ture should  be.  After  the  cream  or  milk  and  ferment  are 
mixed,  no  more  stirring  is  admissible,  as  any  agitation  of 
the  cream  afterwards  retards  the  ripening  process. 

Butter  by  Shalloza-pan  Creaming. — Raise  the  cream  in  a 
.'.emperature  of  about  60°  F. ;  avoid  as  much  as  possible 
■,;kimming  milk  in  with  the  cream;  ripen  at  about  65'  F. ; 
ohurn  at  60'  to  62°.  Free  the  granules  of  butter  from  the 
buttermilk  by  washing  in  water,  temperature  about  55°. 
Salt,  I  oz.  to  I  lb.  of  butter. 

Butter  by  Deep  Cold  Setting  and  Cooley  System. — Raise  the 
cream  in  ice-water;  milk  may  be  skimmed  in  with  the 
cream  or  not  as  desired;  with  the  Cooley  cream  a  very 
considerable  portion  of  milk  added  to  the  cream  will  pro- 
duce no  bad  effects.  Ripen  at  a  temperature  of  68°  by 
adding  lactive  ferment;  churn  at  temperature  of  58°  to  65°; 


304  DAIRYING. 

vvash  the  granules  in  water,  temperature  50°  to  55°,  and 
salt  as  above. 

Butter  from  Separator  Crea?fi. — Cool  the  cream  from  sep- 
arator to  66°  to  68^,  add  lactive  ferment,  and  churn  at  55  to 
58%  according  to  the  percentage  of  butter-fat  in  the  cream. 
The  cream  should  be  cooled  after  ripening  so  that  the 
temperature  of  the  cream  will  register  not  over  55'.  This 
cooling  requires  time  and  patience,  but  will  be  rewarded 
with  solid  granules.  Wash  in  water  at  50  to  52".  Salt, 
I  oz.  to  I  lb.  of  butter. 

Good  butter  should  not  contain  more  than  \(i%  of  water 
(and  may  contain  as  little  as  8^^)  when  properly  worked. 
It  is  sufficiently  worked  when  it  presents  a  delicate  elastic- 
ity to  the  touch,  and  when  broken  should  show  a  perfect 
uniformity  of  grain  and  color. 

THE    ALKALIXl]    TABLIOT    TE.n     OF    ACIDITY    IN 
MILK    OK   CRKAM.* 

By  Prof.  E,  H.  Fakrington,  of  Wisconsin  Dairy  School. 

This  test  is  now  extensively  used  by  persons  interested  in 
either  one  or  all  of  the  dairy  products:  milk,  cream,  butter,  and 
cheese.  It  shows  the  extent  to  which  acidity  has  developed  in 
a  given  sample  and  gives  this  information  quickly.  Briefly 
staled,  it  may  be  used  for  the  following  purposes: 

First. — For  testing  the  acidity  of  milk.  To  detect  those 
lots  which  are  ap})arently  sweet,  but  loo  nearly  sour  for  pasteur- 
izing, for  retailing,  or  for  making  the  best  butler  or  cheese. 

Second. — For  testing  the  acidity  of  each  lot  of  cream  dur- 
ing its  ripening,  to  trace  the  progress  of  its  souring,  and  to  show 
whether  the  fermentations  should  be  hastened  or  checked  in 
order  to  have  the  cream  in  a  certain  acid  condition  at  a  given 
time  and  ready  for  churning. 

Rapid  Method  of  Testing  Many  Lots  of  Milk. — In  addi  ion  to 
the  tablets,  the  only  apparatus  necessary  for  testing  the  acidity 
of  either  milk  or  cream  is  a  common  white  teacup,  £P  4,  6,  or  8 
oz.  bottle,  and  a  No.  10  brass  cartridge  shell  or  similar  measure. 
The  testing  solution  is  prepared  by  dissolving  one  tablet  in  one 
ounce  of  water.     This  is  the  standard  solution.     Four  ounces  of 

*  For  a  more  detailed  discussion  of  the  alkaline  tablet  test,  see  Far- 
rinston-WolI,  Testing  Milk  and  its  Products,  22I  EJ.,  pp.  IJ4-131. 


BUTTER.  305 

the  tablet  solution  are  made  by  filling  a  four-ounce  bottle  with 
water  and  adding  to  it  four  tablets.  The  No.  lo  shell  is  filled 
with  the  milk  or  cream  to  be  tested.  This  measured  quantity 
is  poured  into  a  white  cup.  The  same  measure  is  then  filled  with 
the  tablet  solution  and  this  is  poured  into  the  cup.  The  two 
liquids  are  thoroughly  mixed,  and  the  color  of  the  mixture  is 
noted.  If  there  is  no  change  of  color,  another  measure  of  tablet 
solution  is  added.  This  is  continued  until  the  sample  which 
is  being  tested  retains  a  pink  color.  As  soon  as  the  pink  color 
is  obtained  no  more  tablet  solution  is  added.  The  per  cent  of 
acid  in  the  sample  tested  is  found  from  the  number  of  measures 
of  tablet  solution  it  is  necessary  to  add  to  one  measure  of  the 
milk  or  cream  sample  in  order  to  produce  the  pink  color.  Each 
measure  of  tablet  solution  represents  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent 
acid  when  tests  are  made  in  this  way. 

The  Most  Delicate  Method. — A  more  exact  testing  of  acidity 
can  be  made  by  using  a  17.6-cc.  pipette  for  measuring  the  milk 
or  cream  to  be  tested  and  a  loo-cc.  graduated  cylinder  for  measur- 
ing the  tablet  solution. 

Five  tablets  are  dissolved  in  97  cc.  of  water  in  the  cylinder, 
and  this  solution  is  gradually  poured  into  the  17.6  cc.  of  milk  or 
cream  in  a  white  cup.  When  sufficient  tablet  solution  has  been 
added  to  produce  the  pink  color  in  the  sample  tested,  the  operator 
observes  on  the  scale  of  the  graduated  cylinder  the  number  of 
cc.  tablet  solution  used.  Each  cc.  of  this  tablet  solution  is  equal 
to  0.0090  gr.  lactic  acid,  and  when  17.6  cc.  of  a  sample  is  tested, 
each  cc.  of  the  tablet  solution  is  equal  to  .01  per  cent  acid  in  the 
sample.  The  per  cent  of  acid  in  each  sample  is  therefore  indi- 
cated by  the  amount  of  tablet  solution  used  in  each  case. 

Milk  docs  not  smell  or  taste  sour  until. it  contains  about  three- 
tenths  of  one  per  cent  acid.  It  has  been  found,  however,  that 
milk  containing  over  two-tenths  per  cent  acid  cannot  be  safely 
pasteurized,  because  such  milk  sours  very  soon.  These  tablets 
supply  a  quick  means  of  sorting  different  lots  of  sweet  milk,  by 
showing  which  contain  less  and  which  more  than  two-tenths  of 
one  per  cent  acid. 

Cream  is  often  ripened  so  far  that  the  quality  of  the  butter 
is  injured.     The  usual  method  of  the  butter-maker  for  testing 


306  DAIRYING. 

the  sourness  of  the  cream  is  by  the  sense  of  smell  and  taste.  A 
tablet  test  shows  exactly  what  per  cent  of  acid  each  lot  of  cream 
contains,  so  that  the  buttcr-niakcr  is  better  able  to  manufacture  a 
uniform  grade  of  Ijuttcr  by  always  rijjcning  his  cream  to  the  same 
point  before  it  is  churned.  Sweet  cream  contains  about  0.15% 
acid.  Cream  has  reached  the  proper  point  for  churnmg  when  it 
contains  about  six-tenths  per  cent  acid.  As  the  souring  of  cream 
is  largely  influenced  by  the  temperature  at  which  it  is  held,  the 
butter-maker  is  able  to  know  from  an  acid  test  of  the  cream 
whether  it  should  be  warmed  or  cooled  in  order  to  have  it  ready 
for  churning  at  a  given  time  and  just  sour  enough  for  making 
butter  of  good  flavor  (see  page  313). 

Cheese-makers  are  beginning  to  use  this  test  as  a  substitute 
for  the  hot-iron  and  other  tests,  because  of  the  exactness  with 
which  it  shows  the  acidity  of  the  milk,  the  whey,  and  the  curd. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    THE    USE     OF    MAWS'    TEST 

FOR  ASCERTAINING    THE    ACIDITY  OF 

CRE.VM. 

1.  Stir  the  cream  thoroughly;  insert  small  end  of  pipette 
in  cream  and  draw  until  nearly  full;  then  put  the  finger  over 
upper  end  of  pipette  and  allow  cream  to  escape  slowly  (by 
admitting  air)  until  mark  on  neck  of  pipette  is  reached. 
Transfer  to  a  tumbler,  rinse  the  pipette  three  times  with 
lukewarm  water,  adding  the  rinsing  water  to  the  cream  in 
the  tumbler.  Now  add  to  contents  of  the  tumbler  three 
drops  of  the  solution  marked  "  Indicator"  (phenolphtalein). 

2.  Fill  the  burette  up  to  the  o  mark  with  the  solution 
marked  "  Neutralizer"  (alkali  solution). 

3.  While  constantly  stirring  the  cream  with  the  glass  rod, 
allow  the  liquid  to  flow  from  the  burette  into  the  tumbler 
until  the  entire  contents  of  the  tumbler  shows  a  pink  tinge. 
Stop  adding  the  solution  from  the  burette  the  moment  the 
color  is  permanent. 

4.  Read  the  level  of  the  liquid  remaining  in  the  burette. 
The  reading  shows  the  amount  of  acid  present. 

The  experience  of  those  using  the  test  indicates  tha^ 
where  the  acidity  of  the  cream  is  right,  to  secure  the  bes' 
results  in  yield  cind  flavor  of  butter,  from  38  to  42  cc.  of  the 
neutralizer    vn.i    be   required   for   the  test.     It  is  a  simple 


BUTTER. 


307 


matter  for  each  butter  maker  to  learn  by  experiment  the 
exact  degree  of  acidity  and  churning  temperature  suited  to 
the  best  results,  and  with  these  as  standards  reduce  the 
process  of  butter-making  to  a  certainty.  By  testing  his 
cream  in  the  afternoon  the  butter-maker  will  be  able  to  set 
it  to  ripen  at  such  a  temperature  that  it  will  show  the  proper 
acidity  for  churning  next  morning. 

In  testing  the  milk  for  cheese-making  the  same  directions 
are  to  be  followed,  excepting  that  a  much  less  acid  condition 
is  required;  probably  15-20  cc.  will  give  the  best  results. 
The  whole  numbers  are  cubic  centimeters;  the  intermediate 
divisions  are  fractions  of  a  cubic  centimeter. 

Precatdions inUsing the  7'est. — The  solution  marked  "Neu- 
tralizer"  is  prepared  of  a  certain  strength.  It  is  essentia.' 
that  this  strength  remain  constant.  Never  let  this  solution 
stand  without  a  stopper.      Keep  in  glass  or  stoneware. 

PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  BUTTER.     (Komg.) 


Aver- 
age. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Sweet 
Cream 
Butter. 

Sour 
Cream 
Butter. 

No.  of  analyses  included.  ..  . 

351 
13.45 
83.70 

•  76 

•  50 
.  I  2 

1-59 

10 

12.93 

84-53 

.61 

.68 

I.  25 

1 1 

Water 

4-iS 

69.96 

.19 

!      -45 

.02 

35-12 

90.92 

4.78 

1.63 

i5-o8 

13.08 

Fat 

84.26 

Casein 

.8i 

Milk  sugar 

.66 

Lactic  acid 

Ash 

1 .  19 

AVERAGE    CHEMICAL.    COMPOSITION  OF    SAVKIi 
CREA3I-    AND    SOUK    CREA3I-BUTTER. 

(Fleischmann.) 


Made  from  Sweet 
Cream,  not  Salted. 

Made  from  Sour 
Cream,  Sailed. 

Not 
washed. 

Washed. 

Not 
washed. 

Washed. 

Water . 

Per  ct. 

15.00 

83-47 
.60 
.80 
•13 

Per  ct. 

15.00 

83-73 

•55 

.60 

.  12 

Per  ct. 

12.00 

84 -75 

•50 

•55 

2.20 

Per  ct. 

12.50 

84.62 

.48 

.40 

2.00 

Fat 

Casein  and  albumen   ... 

Other  organic  substances 

Ash,  or  ash  and  salt 

;08 


DAIRYING. 


AXATiYSES    OF    PREMIUM   BUTTERS,    FAT-STOCK 
SHOW,    CHICAGO,    1889.— IX    PER    CEXT.     (Mokkow.) 


Description  of  Samples. 


Sweepstakes — Creamery,  gathered  cream 

"  **  whole  milk 

"  Dairy 

"  From  a  grade  cow 

First  prize— From  a  Jersey  cow   

"         ■'         From  a  Shorthorn  cow 

"         "         From  ;in  Ayrshire  cow  

"         "         From  a  Devon  cow 

"         "         From  a  Holstein  cow 

Average 


* 

i-i 
96 

94 

93 

05-5 

91 

91 

93 

87 

92-5 

92-5 

Vh 

3 

u 

1. 01 

I. 21 

.86 
1.03 
•79 
I -04 
.81 
.72 
.88 

.96 

9-99 
12.19 

8.49 
9.71 

8.99 
12.07 

9-53 
10.78 
10  56 

85 
82 
86 

85 
88 
84 
86 
86 
85 

41 
66 

53 
96 
08 
79 
53 
20 

53 

10.23 

85 

74 

358 

3-93 
4.12 
3.29 

2'3 

1.79 

3  32 
2.29 

303 
3-05 


ANALYSES    OF    FOREIGX    SAMPLES  OF  BUTTER. 

(In  Per  Cent.) 


Country. 


No.  of 
Anal- 
yses. 


Water. 


Fat.        Curd. 


Ash 
(Salt). 


A.    Salted  Butter. 


Denmark 

Sweden   

Finland 

Netherlands  . 

France       

Great  Britain. 

Germany 

Italy 

Australia 

Canada 

United  States. 


France 

Germany 

Great  Britain. 

Austria 

Italy   

Switzerland. . 
Australia 


55 

12.86 

83.78 

1.21 

139 

14-13 

82.57 

.98 

2 

1305 

84.  n 

1.58 

4 

12  97 

8413 

1-39 

235 

13.32 

84.48 

1-43 

322 

12.09 

84.66 

1. 14 

162 

13-38 

8:1.70 

1-25 

6 

11  S2 

85. ■;6 

1.07 

59 

11  .16 

85.32 

.96 

207 

8. 97 

84.29 

1.44 

473 

11.44 

84.64 

1.02 

B.  Unsalted  Butter. 


Average  for  salted  butter 

"  "     U7isalted  huttcr 


58 

13-73 

85.80 

1-39 

86 

12.03 

85.70 

2.15 

24 

13.43 

85  64 

.80 

5 

1415 

84.14 

1-54 

53 

13-67 

85.08 

I.  II 

14 

13-76 

84.65 

»-55 

2 

10.63 

87.71 

1.38 

1676 

11-95 

84.27 

1.26 

242 

13-07 

85-24 

1-57 

2-IS 
2.32 

I  .26 
I. 51 

-77 
2.  II 
1.67 
1.86 
2.56 

5-17 
2.90 


.08 
.12 
•>3 
.17 
•15 
.04 
.28 

».S8 


*  The  standard  of  the  scale  of  points  in  a  total  of  100  was  ; 
grain,  30;  color,  15  ;  salting.  lo- 
+  Chiefly  salt. 


Flavor,  ^e  ? 


BUTTER.  309 

COMMERCIAL    GRADES    OF    BUTTER. 

(New  York  Mercantile  Exchange.) 

Extras. 

Shall  be  composed  of  the  highest  grades  of  butter  made  in  the 
season  when  offered  under  the  different  classifications;  90  per 
cent,  shall  be  up  to  the  following  standard.  The  balance  shall 
not  grade  below  Firsts. 

Flavor. — Must  be  fine,  sweet,  clean,  and  fresh  if  of  current 
make,  and  fine,  sweet,  and  clean,  if  held. 

Body. — Must  be  firm,  smooth,  and  uniform. 

Color. — A  light  straw  shade,  even  and  uniform. 

Salt. — Medium  salted. 

Package. — Good,  uniform,   and  clean. 

Score. — Shall  average  93  points,  or  higher. 

Firsts. 

Shall  be  a  grade  just  below  Extras,  and  must  be  fine  butter  for 
the  season  when  made  and  offered  under  the  different  classifica- 
tions, and  up  to  the  following  standard : 

Flavor. — Must  be  good,  sweet,  clean,  and  fresh  if  of  current 
make,  and  good,  sweet,  and  clean,  if  held. 

Body. — Good  and  uniform. 

Color. — Reasonably  uniform.     Neither  too  high  nor  too  light. 

Salt. — ^ledium  salted. 

Package. — Good  and  uniform. 

Score. — Shall  average  87  points,  or  higher. 

Seconds. 

Shall  be  a  grade  just  below  Firsts  and  must  be  good  for  the 
season  when  ofl'ered  under  the  ditTerent  classifications  and  up 
to  the  following  standard: 

Flavor. — Must  be  reasonably  good  and  sweet. 

Body. — If  creamery  or  dairy,  must  be  solid  boring.  If  fac- 
tory or  renovated,  must  be  90  per  cent,  solid  boring. 


310  DAIRYII^G. 

Color. — Fairly  uniform. 

Salt. — May  be  high,  medium,  or  Hght  salted. 

Package. — Good  and  uniform. 

Score. — Shall  average  80  points,  or  higher. 

TiTIRDS. 

Shall  be  a  grade  just  below  Seconds. 

Flavor. — Must  be  reasonably  good;  may  be  strong  on  tops 
and  sides. 

Body. — Fair  boring,  if  creamery  or  dairy,  and  at  least  50  pe» 
cent,  boring  a  full  trier,  if  factor}-  or  renovated. 

Color. — ISIay  be  irregular. 

Salt. — High,  light,  or  irregular. 

Package. — Fairly  uniform. 

Score. — Shall  average  75  points,  or  higher. 

Fourths. 
Shall  be  a  grade  just  below  thirds,  and  may  consist  of  pro. 
miscuous  lots. 

Flavor. — May  be  off  flavored,  and  strong  on  tops  and  sides. 

Body. — Not  required  to  draw  a  full  trier. 

Color. — May  be  irregular. 

Salt. — High,  light,  or  irregular. 

Package. — Any  kind  of  package  mentioned  at  time  of  sale. 

Packing  Stock. 

No.  I — Shall  be  original  butter,  without  additional  moisture 
or  salt,  sweet  and  sound,  packed  in  large,  new  barrels,  having  a 
wooden  head  in  each  end,  or  in  new  tubs,  both  to  be  parchment- 
paper  lined,  or  a  good  uniform  second-hand  barrel  having  a 
wooden  head  in  each  end  and  parchment-paper  lined.  Barrels 
and  tubs  to  be  packed  full. 

No.  2 — Shall  be  original  butter,  without  additional  salt  or 
water,  sweet  and  sound,  and  can  be  packed  in  promiscuous  or 
different  kind  of  barrels,  tubs,  or  tierces,  without  being  parchment- 
paper  lined,  and  may  be  packed  in  either  two-headed  or  cloth- 
covered  barrels. 

No.  3. — Shall  be  of  any  grade  or  quality  above  grease,  and 
packed  in  any  and  all  kinds  of  packages. 

Charges  for  inspection  shall  be  the  same  as  the  rules  call  for 
on  other  grades. 

Grease. 

Shall  consist  of  all  grades  of  butter  below  Fourths,  free  from 
adulteration. 


BUTTER. 


311 


FORMULA   FOR  CALiCULiATIXG  THE  YIELD  OF 

BUTTER. 

In  ordinary  dairy  or  creamery  practice,  where  modern 
methods  of  creaming  and  churning  are  applied,  the  yield 
of  butter  will  exceed  that  of  fat  in  the  milk  by  12  to  15  per 
cent,  or  i  pound  of  fat  in  the  milk  will  produce  about  1.15 
pounds  butter,  i.e.,  yield  of  butter  from  100  lbs.  of  milk  = 
1.15/,  y  being  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk. 

Fleischmann^ s  formula: 

Yield  of  butter  =  1.16/—  .25 

Conversion  Factor  for  Calculating  Yield  of  Butter  from  the 
Amoitnt  of  Butter-fat. — The  following  resolution  was  passed 
by  the  Association  of  American  Agricultural  Colleges  and 
Experiment  Stations  at  the  annual  convention  of  the  asso- 
ciation, July,  1895: 

"  Resolved,  That  this  association  recommends  to  the 
several  stations  that  the  results  of  tests  of  dairy  cows  or 
herds  be  expressed  in  terms  of  butter-fat,  and  that  when 
desirable  to  express  these  records  in  terms  of  approximate 
equivalent  in  butter  such  equivalent  be  computed  by  multi- 
plying the  amount  of  butter-fat  by  i|."  (Report  of  Curtiss, 
Armsby,  and  Cooke.) 

The  factor  i^  is  based  upon  the  results  of  the  Columbian 
dairy  test,  in  which  it  was  found  that  117. 3  lbs.  of  butter 
were,  on  the  average,  made  from  each  100  lbs.  of  butter-fat  in 
the  whole  milk,  and  96.67  lbs.  of  butter-fat  of  the  milk  was 
recovered  in  the  butter. 

YIELD    OF   BUTTER  FROM   100  POUNDS  OF 
CREAM    OF    DIFFERENT    RICHNESS. 

(Maktiny.) 


Per  Ct.  Fat 

Yield  of 

Per  Ct.  Fat 

Yield  of 

Per  Ct.  Fat 

Yield  of 

in  Cream 

Butter. 

;  in  Cream. 

Butter. 

in  Cream. 

Butter. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

IS 

15-7 

22 

23.0 

29 

30.3 

16 

16.7 

23 

24.0 

30 

31-4 

17 

17.7 

24 

25.1 

31 

32.4 

18 

18.8 

i          25 

26.1 

2,2 

33.  5 

19 

10.9 

1          26 

27.  2 

Zl 

34-5 

20 

21.0 

27 

28.2 

34 

35. S 

21 

22.0 

28 

29.3 

35 

36.6 

;ii^ 


DAIRYING. 


TIELD  OP  BUTTER    CORRESPONDIXG    TO  YIELD 
OF  BUTTER-FAT  PER  DAY  AND  PER  W  EEK, 

in  Pounds. 


Fat. 


Butter. 


Fat. 


Butter. 


Fat.      Butter. 


Fat. 


A.   Per  Day 


0.30 

•35 
.40 

.45 
.50 

•55 
.60 

.65 
.70 

•75 
.80 

.85 
.yo 


0 

35 

41 

47 

53 
58 
64 

70 
76 
8a 

88 

93 

99 

I 

05 

0-95 
1. 00 
1.05 
1 .  10 
1. 15 
1. 20 

1-25 
1.30 

1-35 
1.40 

1-45 
1-50 
1-55 


I. II 
1.17 
1.23 
1.28 

1-34 
1.40 
1 .46 

i-52 

1.58 
1.63 
1 .69 
'•75 


1.60 
1.65 
1 .70 

1-75 
1.80 

1.85 

I.QO 

1.95. 

2.00 

2.05 

2.10 

2  15 
2  .20 


1.87 

1-93 
1.98 
2.04 
2.10 
2. 16 
2.22 
2.28 
2-33 
2-39 
2-45 
2.51 

2-57 


B.   Per  Week. 


5.00 

5.83 

7-5° 

8.75 

10.00 

11.67 

12.50 

5.10 

5-95 

7.60 

8.87 

10. 10 

11.78 

12.60 

S-20 

6.07 

7.70 

8.98 

10.20 

11.90 

12. 70 

5-30 

6.18 

7.80 

9.10 

10.30 

12.02 

12.80 

540 

6.30 

7.90 

9.22 

10  40 

12. 13 

12.90 

5-50 

6.42 

8.00 

9-33 

10.50 

12.25 

13. OJ 

5.60 

6.53 

8.10 

9-45 

10.60 

'2.37 

13. 10 

5-70 

6.65 

8.20 

9-57 

10.70 

12.48 

13.20 

5.80 

6.77      1 

8.30 

9.68 

10.80 

12.60 

13.30 

5-90 

6.88 

8.40 

9.80 

10.90 

12.72 

13.40 

6.00 

7.00     1 

8.50 

9.92 

11.00 

12.83 

13-50 

6.10 

7.12 

:    8.60 

10.03 

11 .10 

12.95 

13.60 

6.20 

7-23 

8.70 

10.15 

11.20 

13.07 

13.70 

6.30 

7-35 

1    8.80 

10.27 

11.30 

13.18 

13.80 

6.40 

■  7-47 

8.90 

10.38 

11.40 

13  30 

13.90 

6.50 

7-58 

9.00 

10.50 

11.50 

13-42 

14.00 

6.60 

7.70 

9.10 

10.62 

11.60 

'3-53 

14.10 

6.70 

7.82 

9.20 

10.73 

1 1 .  70 

13  65 

14.20 

6.80 

7-93      ! 

9-30 

10.85 

11.80 

13-77 

14.30 

6.90 

8.05 

1    9-40 

10.97 

11.90 

13.88 

14.40 

7.00 

8.17      1 

9-50 

11.08 

12.00 

14.00 

14.50 

7.10 

8.28 

9.60 

11.20 

12.10 

14.12 

14.60 

7.20 

8.40 

9.70 

11.32 

12.20 

14-23 

14.70 

7-30 

8.5« 

9.80 

"•43 

12.30 

U-35 

14.80 

7.40 

8.63 

g.90 

11-55 

12.40 

14.47 

14.90 

2.25 
2.30 

2-35 
2.40 
2.45 
2.50 

2-55 
2.60 
2.65 
2.70 

2-75 
2.80 
2.85 


Fat. 

Butter, 

Fat. 

Butter. 

.01 

.01 

.06 

.07 

.02 

.02 

.07 

.08 

•03 

.04 

.08 

.09 

.04 

-05 

.09 

.11 

•05 

.06 

.10 

1 

.12 

liLTTEU. 


'6Td 


VALUE  OF  ^^^^    ^~   FOR  SP.    GR.   OF  »IILK    FROM 
1.019  TO   1.0399. 

(See  p.  261.) 


Sp.grr.  ( 

0.0000 

0.0001 

0.0002 

0 . 0003 

0.0004 

0 . 0005 

0 . 0006 

0.0007 

0.0008 

O.OOOQ 

1. 019 

1.864 

1.874 

1.884 

1.894 

1.903 

1-913 

1.922 

1.932 

1.941 

1-951 

1.020 

i.q6r 

1.970 

1.980 

1.990 

1.999 

2.009 

2.018 

2  028 

2.038 

2-047 

1 .021 

2-057 

2.066 

2.076 

2.080 

2.095 

2. 105 

2. 114 

2.124 

2-133 

2.143 

1 .022 

2.155 

2.162 

2.172 

2.181 

2.191 

2.200 

2. 210 

2.220 

2.220 

2.239 

1.023 

2.249 

2.258 

2.267 

2.277 

2.286 

2.296 

2.306 

2  315 

2.325 

2-334 

1.024 

2   344 

2-353 

2  363 

2.372 

2.382 

2.391 

2.401 

2  .4T0 

2.420 

2.430 

1.025 

2-439 

2.449 

2.45<5 

2.468 

2-477 

2.487 

2-496 

2 .  506 

2-515 

2-5-'S 

1 .020 

2 -Si  4 

2   544 

2-553 

2.56^ 

2-573 

2.582 

2.591 

2.t0I 

2.610 

2.620 

1 .027 

2.629 

2.638 

2.648 

2-657 

2.667 

2.676 

2.686 

2.695 

2.705 

2.714 

1.028 

2.724 

2-733 

2-743 

2-752 

2.  762 

2.771 

2.781 

2.790 

2.799 

2.809 

1.029 

2.81S 

2  828 

2.837 

2.847 

2.856 

2.865 

2.87s 

2.884 

2.893 

2.903 

1 .030 

2.913 

2.922 

2.931 

2.941 

2.951 

2.960 

2.969 

2-979 

2.988 

2-997 

1. 031 

3.007 

3.016 

3.020 

3-C35 

3-044 

3-054 

3.063 

3.072 

3.082 

3.0Q1 

1.032 

3.  IDT 

3. no 

3- 120 

3.129 

3-1.38 

3.148 

3-157 

3-166 

3-176 

3-185 

1-033 

3-195 

3.C04 

3-213 

3-223 

3.232 

3-241 

3-251 

3.260 

3  269 

3-279 

1.034 

3.288 

3.29S 

3  307 

3-316 

3.326 

3-335 

3-344 

3-354 

3-363 

3-372 

I-035 

3-382 

3-391 

3  400 

3  410 

3-419 

3.428 

3-438 

3-447 

3-456 

3-466 

1 .036 

3-475 

3-4S4 

3-494 

3-503 

3-512 

3-521 

3-531 

3-540 

3-549 

3-559 

1-037 

3-568 

3-577 

3-587 

3-596 

3.605 

3-614 

3.624 

3  633 

3.642 

3  652 

1.038 

3.661 

3.670 

3-679 

3.689 

3-698 

3-707 

3-717 

3.726 

3-735 

3-744 

1.039 

3-754 

3-763 

3-772 

3-781 

3-791 

3.800 

3.809 

3.818 

3.828 

3-837 

RELATION  OF  FAT  CONTENT  TO  ACIDITY  OF 
SK13I-311LK,  MILK,  AND  CREAM.     lA.  Vind.) 

(See  p.  306.) 


Skim- 

Whole 

Cream. 

milk. 

Milk. 

Fat  contents 

0  per  ct. 

5  per  ct. 

25  perct. 

30  pc 

ret. 

35  perct. 

40  perct. 

cc. 
10 

% 
.18 

cc. 
9-5 

•17 

cc. 
7-5 

% 
14 

cc. 
7 

% 
•13 

cc. 
6.5 

.  12 

cc. 
6 

% 

Equal  acidiiy  test 

.11 

" 

45 

.81 

43 

•77 

34 

61 

,31.5 

•57 

2Q 

-52 

27 

49 

48 

.86 

45-5 

.82 

36 

65 

.33-5 

.60 

31 

-S6 

2Q 

S2 

50 

.90 

48 

.86 

37-5 

67 

35 

.63 

32-5 

-.58 

30 

54 

"           "          " 

52 

•94 

49-5 

.89 

39 

70 

36-5 

.66 

34 

.61 

31 

.S6 

54 

-97 

51 

-92 

40-5 

73 

38 

.68 

35 

.63 

32-5 

S8 

"           "          " 

55 

.99 

52 

-94 

41 

74 

38.5 

.69 

36 

■65 

33 

59 

57 

I  03 

54 

-97 

43 

77 

40 

.7a 

37 

.67 

34 

61 

" 

59 

1.06 

56 

1. 01 

44 

79 

41.5 

•75 

38-5 

.6q 

35-5 

64 

60 

1.08 

57 

1 .03 

45 

81 

42 

.76 

39 

.70 

36 

65 

314 


DAIRYING. 


THE    SODING-SCALE    OVERRUX.     (Farrington.) 


Fat 

Fat  Re- 

Butter 

Fat 

Fat  Re- 

Butter 

Fat 

Fat  Re- 

Butter 

covered 

from 

covered 

from 

covered 

from 

m 
Milk. 

in 
Butter. 

100  lbs. 
Fat. 

m 
Milk. 

m 
Butter. 

100  lbs. 
Fat. 

m 
Milk. 

m 
Butter. 

100  lbs. 
Fat. 

Per 

Cent. 

Per 

Cent. 

Lbs. 

Per 

Cent. 

Per 

Cent. 

Lbs. 

Per 

Cent. 

Per 

Cent. 

Lbs. 

2.5 

95    80 

115. 4 

4.1 

97-45 

117. 4 

5.6 

98.13 

118. 2 

2.6 

95.96 

115  .6 

4 

2 

97.51 

117 

5 

5.7 

98.16 

118 

2 

2.7 

96. 1  2 

115-8 

4 

3 

97.56 

117 

5 

5.8 

98.  20 

118 

3 

2.8 

96.25 

116. 0 

4 

4 

97.62 

117 

6 

5.9 

98.  22 

118 

3 

2.9 

96.38 

116. 1 

4 

5 

97.67 

117 

7 

6.0 

98.  25 

118 

4 

3-0 

96.51 

1 16.  2 

4 

6 

97.72 

117 

7 

6.1 

98.  28 

118 

4 

3-1 

96.  62 

1 16.4 

4 

7 

97.77 

117 

8 

6.2 

98.31 

118 

4 

3.2 

96.73 

116.  5 

4 

8 

97.82 

117 

8 

6.3 

98.33 

118 

5 

3-3 

96.83 

116. 7 

4 

9 

97.86 

117 

9 

6.4 

98.36 

118 

5 

3-4 

96.91 

116. 8 

5 

0 

97.90 

117 

9 

6.5 

98.38 

118 

5 

3-5 

97.00 

116. 9 

5 

I 

97.95 

118 

0 

6.6 

98.41 

118 

5 

3.6 

97.10 

117  .0 

5 

2 

97-99 

118 

I 

6.7 

98.43 

118 

6 

3.7 

97.16 

117. 1 

5 

3 

98.03 

118 

I 

6.8 

98.46 

ir8 

6 

3.8 

97.24 

117.2 

S 

4 

98.06 

118 

I 

6.9 

98.48 

118 

6 

3.9 

97.31 

117.2 

5 

5 

98. 10 

118 

2 

7.0 

98.51 

118 

7 

4.0 

97.38 

117-3 

The  table  is  based  on  the  assurnptions  that  85  per  cent  skim-milk  and 
10  per  cent  buttermilk  are  obtained,  testing  .1  and  .2  per  cent  of  fat, 
respectively;    furthermore',  that  the  btitter  contains  83  per  cent  fat. 

Example. — 3450  lbs.  of  milk  testing  4.2  per  cent  fat  contain  3450  X 
.042  =  144.9  lbs.  of  butter-fat;  this  multiplied  by  the  overrun  for  milk 
testing  4.2  per  cent,  1.175  gives  170.25  lbs.  as  the  calculated  amoimt  01 
butter  which  the  milk  would  make. 


COMPARATTVF    PRICES    OF    MILK,    CREAM, 
BUTTER-FAT    AND    BUTTER.     (Doane.) 


Cream 

Price 

3.5% 

4-5% 

5.5% 

Butter 

Butter 

Per  Cent 

per 

Milk. 

Milk. 

Milk. 

Fat  per 

per 

Fat. 

Gallon. 

. Pri 

je  per  Quart. ■ 

Pound. 

Pound. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

20 

50 

1 2 

145 

17 

28 

23-5 

20 

55 

12 

15s 

18 

31 

26 

20 

60 

135 

16.5 

19-5 

34 

28 

20 

65 

14-5 

18 

21 

37 

31 

20 

70 

15-5 

19 

22 

40 

33 

22 

50 

1 1 

13 

15 

25 

21 

22 

5  5 

I  2 

14-5 

17 

28 

23-S 

22 

60 

13 

15-5 

18 

31 

26 

22 

65 

13-5 

16.5 

19-5 

33-5 

28 

22 

70 

14-5 

17-5 

20  .5 

36 

30 

22 

75 

15 

18.5 

22 

39 

32.5 

25 

5  5 

1 1 

13 

15 

25 

21 

25 

60 

I  I  •  5 

14 

16.5 

27 

22.5 

25 

65 

I  2  .5 

IS 

17-5 

29-5 

24.5 

25 

70 

I  3 

lO 

18.5 

32 

26.5 

25 

7  5 

14 

17 

19-5 

34-5 

28.5 

25 

So 

14-5 

17-5 

20  .  5 

36.5 

30-5 

BUTTER. 


315 


POUNDS  OF  3IIIjK  REQUIRED  TO  MAKE   ONE 


POUND  OF  BUTTER. 


Per  Cent 
Fat  in  Milk. 
2.8.  . 
3.0  .. 
3.2... 
3-4-.. 
3.6... 
3.S... 
4.0... 
4.2.  .. 

4.4... 
4.6... 
4.8... 


Lbs.  of  Milk  per 
I  lb.  of  Butter. 


3I-I 

29.0 
27. 2 

25-5 
24.2 
22.9 
21.7 
20.7 
19.8 
18.9 
18.1 


Per  Cent 
Fat  in  Milk, 
5-0.  .. 

5-2... 

5.4... 
5.6.  . 
5.8... 

6.0... 

6.2... 

6.4... 

6.6... 
6.8... 
7.0... 


Lbs.  of  Milk  pel 
I  lb.  of  Butter. 


17.4 
16.7 
16.I 

15-5 
I5-0 

14-5 
14.0 
13.6 
13.2 
12.8 
12.4 


?..bs.  of  Milk  per 
I  lb.  of  Butter. 


10 

II. 

12. 

13- 
H- 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 
19. 

20. 

21. 
22. 

23 
24. 

25 


Per  Cent 
Fat  in  Milk. 

.  8.70 

.  7.90 

.  7.25 

.  6.69 

.  6.21 

-  5.80 

•  5-44 
.  5-12 

•  4.  S3 
.  4.58 

.  4.35 

.  4.14 

•  3-95 

•  3-78 

•  3-^2 

•  3-47 


Lbs.  of  Milk  per 
i  lb.  of  Butter. 
26 


27. 

28. 

29. 

30. 

31. 

32. 

33- 

34- 

35 

36. 

37- 
38. 

39- 
40. 


Per  Cent 
Fat  in  Milk 

■  3-34 
.  3-22 
.   3-II 

.  3.00 
.   2.90 

.  2.81 

.  2.72 

.  2.64 

.  2.56 

.  2.48 

.  2.42 

.  2.35 

.   2.2g 

.  2.23 
2.17 


The  two  preceding  tables  are  based  on  ordinary  creamery- 
experience,  I  pound  of  fat  in  the  milk  producing  1.15 
pounds  of  butter. 


316 


DAIRYING. 


NUMBER  OF  POUNDS  OF  MIUK   REQUIRED   FOR 
MAKING   ONE    POUND   OF    BUTTER.     (Kirchner.) 


Lbs.  Butter  per 

I.bs.  Milk  per  i 

Lbs.  Butter  per 

Lbs.  Milk  per  i 

IOC  lbs.  of  Milk. 

lb.  of  Butter. 

100  lbs.  of  Milk. 

lb.  of  Butter. 

2.4 

41.67 

3-8 

26.32 

2-5 

40.00 

^•9 

25.64 

2.6 

38.46 

4.0 

25.00 

2.7 

37-04 

4.1 

24-39 

2.8 

35  71 

4.2 

23.81 

2.9 

34  48 

4-3 

'-'3  '6 

30 

33-33 

4.4 

22.73 

31 

32.26 

4-5 

22  22 

3-2 

31  25 

4.6 

21.74 

3-3 

.30.30 

4-7 

21.28 

3*4 

29.41 

4.8 

20.83 

3-5 

28.57 

4-9 

20.41 

3-6 

27.68 

5-0 

20.00 

3.7 

27.03 

5-5 

18.18 

DISTRIBUTION   OF   MILK   INGREDIENTS   IN 
BUTTER    3IAKING.      (Cooke.) 


d 

Proportion 

•a 

c 

B 

Xi 

l5 

of  the  Total 

5^ 

W 

en 

•Milk  Fat 
found  in  the 

lbs 

bn 

U 

< 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Product. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1000  lbs.  of  whole  milk. . . . 

130.0 

40.0 

26.0 

7  0 

49-5 

7-5 

800  lbs.  of  skim-milk.    .. 

78.0 

2  4 

22.0 

6.0 

41.2 

6.4 

6 

200  lbs.  of  cream 

52.0 

37-6 

4.0 

1.0 

8-3 

i.i 

94 

187  li'S.  of  buttermilk...  . 

14-91 

.8 

3-77 

-94 

8.3 

i.i 

2 

43  3  lbs.  of  butter.. 

37.09 

36.8 

•23 

.06 

92 

SCORE   FOR  JUDGING   BLTTEIl   GENI^RALLY 
ADOPTED  IN   AMERICAN   CONTESTS. 

Flavor 45 

Grain  (body) 25 

Color 15 

Salt 10 

Packing  (style) 5 


100 


BUTTER. 


317 


This  score  has  been  adopted  in  judging  butter  exhibits 
at  various  State  fairs  and  dairymen's  conventions  during 
late  yeais;  in  some  cases  the  score  has  been  changed  to 
50  for  flavor  and  5  for  salting,  otherwise  as  above,  or  to 
flavor  40,  grain  30,  with  other  points  as  above. 

Minimum  number  of  points  entitling  exhibitors  to  a 
premium : 

Wisconsin  Dairymen's  Association,  93,  95,  and  94  points, 
for  dairy,  separator  creamery,  and  gathered-cream  butter, 
respectively. 

New  York  State  Fair,  75  points. 

EXGJLISH    SCALE    OP   POINTS  FOR  JUDGING 

BUTTER.         (MCCONNELL.) 

Perfection,  100. 

25   Flavor  :  nutty,  aromatic,  sweet. 

20  Moisture  :  as  free  from  beads  of  water  as  possible. 

10  Solidity  :  firm,  not  melting  easily,  nor  softening. 

25  Texture  :    closeness  of    grain,  distinct   fracture  ;    not 
greasy. 

10  Color  :  natural,  even. 

10  Make  :  remaining  points,   cleanliness,    salting,  nicely 
— ■         put  up,  etc. 
100 


SCORE  IN  JUDGING  PROFICIENCY  OF  BUTTER- 

MAKERS. 

(Adopted  by  British  Dairy  Farmers'  Association.) 
Butter-niakiiiff. 


Preparation  of  cream 4 

"  utensils 6 

Ventilation  of  churn 4 

Judgment  and  skill  in  churning. .  15 

Washing  butter  in  churn 10 

Use  of  strainer 4 

"      "thermometer 7 

"     "butter-worker 7 


Sailing 5 

Making  up 15 

Flavor  and  color 7 

Texture  and  freedom  from  moist- 
ure   7 

Cleaning  utensils 4 

Rapidity  and  cleanliness  of  work- 
ing   5 


rao 


318 


DAIRYING. 


ANALYSES    OF   AMERICAN    DAIRY    SALTS. 

(In  Per  Cent.*) 


Name  of  Brand. 


Acme 

Anchor 

Ashton 

Bradley 

Cantield  &VV^heeler.... 

Diamond  Crystal 

Empire 

Genesee   . .    . .    . 

Hif,'gins 

Le  Roy 

Lone  Star   

Vacuum  Pan 

Warsaw ... 

Worcester 

Coleman    

Rice   

Windsor 


99 


97 


U 


[.48 
1.42 
.90 


•54 
.66 


•44 
•31 
.46 

•'5 
.95 
.92 
.48 
.85 
.90 


U 


.12 

.28 
.20 
.40 
.22 
.19 

•54 
.24 
.14 

•39 
.06 

.36 
.40 

•25 
.  10 
.  12 
•5' 


.07 
.08 
.16 
.07 

•  12 
•05 
.10 
.07 
.  10 
.08 
.08 

•  1.5 

.06 
.07 
.04 
.09 
.04 


•03 

.06 

•t'3 
.•^2 
.04 

•03 
.02 
.C4 


,16 


06 

.10 

03 

•31 

03 

.  12 

02 

•17 

c8 

.09 

07 

•30 

o. 


•944  I 

1 .  125 

.703 

.876 

1.062 

.880 

•933 

•875t 

.907 

1.094$ 

1 .072 

1.075 

.962 

1.149 

•  865 

.828 

i.io7§ 


a.- 

2  — 
cs'o 
ac/) 

u 


24 
31 

39 
63 

26 

33 

3'  + 
28 

25t 

28 
30 
39 
29 
28 
30 

26§ 


*  See  U'oi/,  "  A  Siudy  of  Dairy  Salt,"  Bulletin  No.  74,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta. 
+  Bulter-sali;  cheese-salt,  appar.  sp.  gi.  .671;  rate  of  solubility  34  sec, 
t  Butter-salt;  chrcsc  salt,  appar.  sp.  j^r.  .944;  rate  of  solubility  37  sec. 
§  Butter-salt;  cheese-salt,  appar.  sp.  gr.  .891;  rate  of  solubility  32  sec. 

TE3IPERATURES  AT  WHICH  DAIRY  PRODUCTS  SHOULD 
BE  STORED  IN  COLD  STORAGE.     (Douglas.) 


Article. 

Temper- 
ature , 
deg.  F. 

! 

i                Article. 

Temper- 
ature , 
deg.  F. 

Butter 

25-38 

20 
20— S5 
28-35 

35 
2S-35 

Milk 

32 

Butter,  to  freeze 

Butteiine 

Olet  margarine 

Poultry,  frozen 

Poultry,  to  freeze 

Poultry,  long  storage  .  . 

20-35 
28-30 

Cheese 

10-18 

Cream 

Eggs 

10 

CHEESE.  319 


V.  CHEESE. 

HOW  AMERICAN  CHEESE  IS  MADE. 

By  the  late  Prof.  John  W.  Decker,  of  Ohio  Dairy  School,  Author  of 
"Cheese  Making:    Cheddar,   Swiss,  Brick,  etc." 

A.     Factory  or  Cheddar  Cheese. 

As  soon  as  the  milk  is  received  at  the  factory  it  is  heated 
to  86""  F.  and  a  rennet  test  made.* 

Tf  the  milk  is  not  ripe  enough  it  is  held  till  the  proper 
acidity  is  reached.  If  the  milk  is  very  sweet  a  starter  of 
sour  milk  is  added  to  hasten  it.  The  milk  should  be  set  at 
such  a  ripeness  that  there  will  be  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
of  acid  (fine  strings)  on  the  hot-iron  in  two  hours  and  a  half 
from  the  time  rennet  is  added. 

If  the  cheese  is  to  be  colored  the  color  is  added  just  be- 
fore setting  the  milk.  When  it  is  thoroughly  stirred  in, 
the  rennet  may  be  added,  The  amount  of  rennet  to  be  used 
depends  on  the  kind  of  cheese  desired.  If  a  soft  fast-cur- 
ing cheese  is  wanted,  enough  rennet  is  used  to  coagulate 
the  milk  in  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  ;  if  a  slow-curing 
cheese,  enough  to  coagulate  in  thirty  to  forty-five  minutes. 
It  is  stirred  in  thoroughly  in  four  or  five  minutes  and  then 
the  dipper  is  run  lightly  over  the  top,  to  keep  the  cream 
down  till  the  milk  begins  to  thicken,  when  a  cloth  cover  is 
spread  over  the  vat  and  the  coagulation  allowed  to  continue 
till  the  curd  will  break  clean  over  the  fingers. 

*  The  Monrad  rennet  test  is  recomtnended.  It  consists  of  a  i6o  cc.  tin 
cylinder  for  measuring  the  miik,  a  5  cc.  pipette,  a  50  cc.  graduated  flask, 
and  a  half-pint  tin  basin.  The  rennet  is  measured  with  the  5  cc.  pipette 
and  delivered  into  the  50  cc.  flask,  the  rennet  adhering  to  the  pipette  being 
rinsed  into  the  flask  with  a  little  water.  The  flask  is  then  filled  with  water 
to  the  50  cc.  mark,  and  the  solution  mixed  by  shaking.  The  milk,  the 
temperature  of  which  should  be  86°  F.,  is  measured  in  the  tin  cylinder, 
emptied  into  the  half-pint  basin,  and  5  cc.  of  the  dilute  extract  is  measured 
into  the  t6occ,  of  milk,  and  the  number  of  seconds  required  to  curdle  it 
tioted.  If  a  few  specks  of  charcoal  are  scattered  on  the  milk  and  the  milk 
started  into  motion  around  the  dish  with  a  thermometer,  the  instant  of 
curdling  can  be  noted  by  the  stopping  of  the  specks.  They  will  stop  so 
suddenly  as  to  seem  to  start  back  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  'SlarschM 
rennet  test  is  a  very  convenient  device  for  ascortaininy  the  exact  moment 
of  coagulation,  and  is  used  e.xtensively  in  cheese  factories. 


320  DAIRYING. 

The  curd  is  then  cut,  using  the  horizontal  knife  first  and 
cutting  lengthwise  of  the  vat.  The  cutting  is  finished  from 
this  point  with  the  perpendicular  knife,  the  curd  being  thus 
cut  into  cubes  one-half  inch  in  diameter.  Without  waiting  for 
the  curd  to  settle,  begin  stirring  very  carefully  with  a  wire 
basket,  and  rub  the  curd  off  from  the  sides  of  the  vat  with  the 
hand.  As  soon  as  this  is  done,  turn  on  the  heat  carefully  and 
raise  the  temperature  slowly  to  98°  F. ;  when  the  curd  is  fimi 
enough  a  wooden  rake  is  used  to  stir  it.  The  temperature  is 
raised  at  the  rate  of  one  deg.  in  4-5  min. 

As  soon  as  the  temperature  of  98°  F.  is  reached,  begin  trying 
the  curd  on  the  hot  iron  for  acid.  The  curd  must  be  firm  enough 
when  the  whey  is  drawn,  so  that  a  double  handful  pressed  together 
will  fall  apart  readily.  This  is  the  test  for  a  proper  cooking. 
When  fine  threads  I  in.  long  show  on  the  hot  iron  the  whey  is  ready 
to  draw.*  This  should  be  2^  hrs.  from  the  time  the  milk  was  set. 
The  whey  is  drawn  off  by  means  of  a  whey  gate  and  strainer, 
and  the  curd  dipped  into  a  curd-sink  or  on  racks  placed  in  the 
vat,  over  which  a  linen  strainer-cloth  is  thrown.  The  curd 
should  be  stirred  on  the  cloth  to  facilitate  the  escape  of  the 
whey,  and'is  then  left  to  mat  together.  In  15  or  20  min.  it  can 
be  cut  into  blocks  8  or  10  ins.  squai?,  and  turned  over.  After 
turning  several  times  these  blocks  can  be  piled  two  or  three 
deep.  The  acid  will  continue  to  devclo])  in  the  curd;  wlicn  it 
will  string  about  an  inch  it  will  have  assumed  a  stringy  or  meaty 
texture,  so  that  it  will  tear  like  the  meat  on  a  chicken's  breast. 

It  is  then  run  through  the  curd-mill  and  cut  up  into  s"^all 
pieces.  These  pieces  are  stirred  up  every  little  while  to  ai'-. 
In  the  course  of  another  hour  and  a  half  there  will  be  2  in.  of 
acid  on  the  curd;  it  will  smell  like  toasted  cheese  when  pressed 
against  the  hot  iron,  and  half  fat  and  half  whey  will  run  ouj 

*  The  acidimeter  is  sometimes  used  to  take  the  place  of  the  rennet  test 
and  hot  iron.  The  apparatus  is  sold  by  firms  handling  dairy  supplies. 
The  milk  is  set  at  an  acidity  of  .2  per  cent.  When  cut  the  whey  will 
have  a  lower  acidity,  probably  .17  per  cent.  When  the  acidity  in  the 
whey  reaches  .2  per  cent  the  whey  is  drawn.  The  drawings  from  the 
curd  will  show  a  rapid  increase  in  acid.  This  test  should  be  used  with 
care  and  in  combination  with  rennet  test  and  hot  iron. 


CHEESE.  321 

when  a  handful  is  squeezed.  It  is  then  ready  to  salt.  It  is 
cooled  to  80°  F.  betore  salting.  It  a  fast-curing  cheese  is  wanted 
use  2  lbs.  per  100  lbs.  of  curd,  2j  lbs.  are  used  for  a  medium 
cheese,  3  lbs.  for  a  slow-curing  cheese.  The  curd  should  be  spread 
out.  at  an  even  thickness  and  the  salt  applied  evenly.  It  should 
then  be  thoroughly  stirred  several  times. 

As  soon  as  the  harsh  feeling  has  left  the  curd  it  is  ready  to  go 
to  press.  The  screw  should  be  turned  slowly,  but  fast  enough  so 
that  a  stream  of  brine  is  kept  flowing.  The  full  pressure  should 
not  be  applied  for  ten  minutes.  In  an  hour  the  bandages  can 
tc  turned  down,  and  full  pressure  is  then  applied.  The  Helmer 
continuous-pressure  gang-press  is  the  most  satisfactory,  as  the 
cheese  will  not  loosen  during  the  night.  The  next  day  the 
cheese  are  placed  on  the  shelves  and  the  rinds  greased.  They 
should  be  turned  and  rubbed  every  day.  The  temperature 
of  the  curing-room  should  be  60°  to  65°  F.,  and  moisture  should 
be  supplied  in  dry  weather.  The  cheese  are  boxed  and  shipped 
in  about  a  month. 

B.     Cheese   Made  on   the  Farm. 

For  a  farm  dairy  it  will  be  much  easier  to  make  up  sweet-curd 
cheese  than  sour-curd  cheese,  described  in  the  preceding.  For 
this  purpose  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  curd-knife,  a  cheese-vat, 
and  a  cheese-press;  the  method  of  procedure  is  as  follows: 

The  milk,  which  must  be  clean  and  sweet,  is  heated  to  90°  F., 
and  if  any  artificial  color  is  required  it  is  added  at  this  time. 
Set  the  milk  with  enough  rennet  extract  to  coagulate  in  20  to  30 
minutes.  About  four  ounces  of  Hansen's  rennet  extract  per 
1000  lbs.  of  milk  will  prove  a  sufficient  amount. 

As  soon  as  the  curd  will  break  over  the  finger  cut  it  fairly 
fine;  then  raise  the  temperature  one  degree  in  3  minutes  until 
108°' F.  is  reached,  at  the  same  time  stirring  carefully  to  keep 
the  curd  particles  apart.  Hold  at  108°  F.  till  the  curd  is  firm,  that 
is,  till  the  pieces  do  not  feel  mushy.  Then  draw  the  whey  and 
stir  till  the  whey  is  well  drained  out.  Salt  at  the  rate  of  2I  lbs. 
of  s  dt  to  100  lbs.  of  curd,  and  when  the  salt  is  well  worked  in 
it  may  be  put  to  press.  It  will,  however,  improve  the  quality  if 
kept  warm  and  allowed  to  stand  a  number  of  hours  before  salting 
and  pressing.     Ths  cheese  should  be  cured  in  a  room  (preferably 


322  DAIRYIisG. 

a  cellar)  where  the  temperature  can  be  kept  at  60°  F.  Higher 
temperatures  may  spoil  it.  The  cheese  should  be  cured  for  two  to 
three  months  before  it  is  sold. 

CAUSES    OF    TAINTED    MILK. 

The  causes  of  tainted  milk  have  been  classified  as  tol- 
lows,  by  the  Swiss  scientist,  Dr.  Gcrber: 

1.  Poor, decayed  fodders, or  irrational  methods  of  feeding. 

2.  Poor,  dirty  water,  used  for  drinking-water  or  for  the 
washing  of  utensils. 

3.  Foul  air  in  cow-stable,  or  the  cows  lying  in  their  own 
dung. 

4.  Lack  of  cleanliness  in  milking;  manure  particles  on 
udder. 

5.  Keeping  the  milk  long  in  too  warm,  poorly  ventilated 
and  dirty  places. 

6.  Neglecting  to  cool  the  milk  rapidly,  directly  after 
milking. 

7.  Lack  of  cleanliness  in  the  care  of  the  milk,  from  which 
cause  the  greater  number  of  milk  taints  arise. 

8.  Poor  transportation  facilities. 

9.  Sick  cows,  udder  diseases,  etc. 

10.  Cows  being  in  heat. 

11.  Mixing  fresh  and  old  milk  in  the  same  can. 

12.  Rusty  tin  pails  and  tin  cans  (Boggild). 

DETECTING    BAD    MILK:     DIRECTIONS    FOR    OP. 
ERATING  THE  WISCONSIN  CLRD-TEST. 

Cheese-makers  are  often  troubled  with  so-ca.\\ed yfoatin^q , 
pinJiohd,  or  ^cj-j-/ curds  which  produce  cheese  defective  in 
flavor  and  texture.  The  cause  of  this  poor  quality  of  cheese 
often  seems  beyond  the  power  of  the  operator  to  determine. 
While  he  has  heretofore  usually  laid  it  to  "bad"  milk,  it 
was  often  impossible  for  him  to  locate  the  trouble.  By 
means  of  the  curd-test  the  operator  is  usually  able  to  tell 
which  patron  or  patrons  are  furnishing  the  bad  milk;  and 
often  in  the  patron's  herd  it  will  be  shown  to  be  due  to  a 
single  cow.     This  test  as  here  described  originated  at  the 


CHEESE.  223 

Wisconsin  Dairy  School  in  1895.  Apparatus  for  making 
the  test  is  now  furnished  by  dairy  supply-houses,  although 
a  home-made  test  can  be  improvised  by  using  pint  fruit- 
jars  and  a  wash-tub  or  some  small  tank,  in  which  the  jars 
of  milk  can  be  heated  in  warm  water. 

Details  of  the  Test.  — i.  A  pint  glass  jar  which  has 
been  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  sterilized  with  live  steam,  is 
filled  about  two  thirds  full  with  the  milk  to  be  tested. 

2.  It  is  not  necessary  to  take  an  exact  quantity  of  milk, 
but  each  jar  should  be  plainly  labeled. 

3.  The  numbered  jars  of  milk  are  placed  in  a  tank  or  tub 
of  water  which  is  heated  until  the  milk  in  the  jars  has  a 
temperature  of  98°  F. 

4.  The  thermometer  used  should  first  be  rinsed  in  boiling 
water  before  being  placed  in  another  sample,  to  avoid  con- 
tamination of  good  milk  with  bad  milk. 

5.  When  the  milk  has  reached  a  temperature  of  98°  F., 
add  10  drops  of  rennet  extract  to  each  jar  of  milk,  and  mix 
by  giving  the  jar  a  rotary  motion. 

6.  The  rennet  soon  curdles  the  milk,  and  the  curd  is  al- 
lowed to  stand  for  about  twenty  minutes  until  it  is  firm. 

7.  The  curd  should  then  be  cut  into  small  pieces  with  a 
case-knife,  and  after  settling  the  whey  is  poured  off. 
The  best  tests  are  made  when  the  separation  of  whey  is 
most  complete.  By  allowing  the  samples  to  stand  for  a 
short  time,  more  whey  can  be  poured  off,  and  the  curd 
thereby  rendered  firmer. 

8.  The  jars  containing  the  curd  are  then  again  placed  in 
the  tub  and  the  temperature  of  the  water  around  the  jars  is 
maintained  at  or  near  98°  F.  by  adding  hot  water  from  time 
to  time.  The  tub  or  vat  is  covered,  the  curds  are  allowed 
to  ferment  in  the  sample  jars  for  six  to  twelve  hours  and 
are  then  examined. 

9.  The  impurities  in  any  particular  sample  will  cause 
gases  to  be  developed  in  the  curd,  so  that  when  it  is  cut 
with  a  knife  pin-holes  or  gas-holes  can  be  easily  detected. 
Milks  having  a  putrefactive  or  stinking  odor  should  be 
classed  as  bad,  even  though  the  curd  has  a  good  texture 
and  is  free  from  pin-holes. 


3 '3  4  DAIRYING. 

The  curds  in  this  test  are  made  under  conditions  musi 
favorable  for  developing  in  them  any  defects  which  may  be 
caused  by  the  presence  of  undesirable  bacteria  that  are 
brought  to  the  milk  by  dust,  dirt,  and  other  impurities. 

The  odor  of  a  curd  should  be  noticed  as  soon  as  the  covc<: 
is  taken  from  a  jar.      This  is  often  sufficient  to  convince  a 
patron  that  the  milk  is  tainted,  and  may  suggest  to  him  the 
particular  cause  of  the  odor  by  its  resemblance  to  some  fa 
miliar  smell  that  he  recognizes  and  can  remove. 

A  solid  firm  curd  shows  that  the  milk  is  pure  and  clean 
and  has  been  properly  handled.  The  rather  firm  curds 
which  show  fine  pin-holes  when  cut  with  a  knife  are  indi- 
cations of  some  of  the  worst  impurities  in  milk,  while  the 
spongy  curds  show  the  presence  of  bacteria  which  in  some 
cases  have  developed  sufficient  gas  to  float  the  curd.  Per- 
sons familiar  with  milk  soon  learn  to  use  the  evidence 
obtained  by  this  test  to  distinguish  between  good  and  bad 
milk,  and  to  convince  the  milk-producers  of  the  value  of  the 
test.     (Dairy  Bull.,  Wis.  Exp.  Station.) 

THE  FERM i:\TATION  TEST. 

The  Gerbe7-  fermentation  test  (modified  by  Afonrad)  fur- 
nishes a  convenient  method  for  discovering  tainted  milk  on 
the  farm  or  at  the  factory.  The  test  consists  of  a  tin  tank 
\vh  ch  can  be  heated  by  means  ot  a  small  lamp,  and  into 
which  a  rack  fits  holding  a  certain  number  of  cylindrical 
glass  tubes  ;  these  are  all  numbered  and  provided  with  a 
mark  and  a  tin  cover.  In  making  the  test  the  tubes  are 
filled  to  the  mark  with  milk,  the  number  of  each  tube  being 
recorded  in  a  notebook  opposite  the  name  of  the  particular 
patron  whose  milk  was  placed  therein.  The  tubes  in  the 
rack  are  put  in  the  tank,  which  is  two  thirds  full  of  water  ; 
the  temperature  ot  the  water  is  kept  at  104-106°  F.  for  six 
hours,  when  the  rack  is  taken  out,  the  tubes  gently  shaken, 
and  the  appearance  of  the  milk,  its  odor,  taste,  etc.,  carefully 
noted  in  each  rase.  The  tubes  are  then  again  heated  in  the 
tank  at  the  same  temperature  as  before  for  another  six 
hours,  when  observations   are   once    more  taken   of   the  ap> 


CHEESE.  325 

pearance  ol  the  milk  in  each  tube.  The  tainted  milk  may- 
then  easily  be  discovered  on  account  of  the  abnormal  coagu- 
lation of  the  sample. 

Gerber  concluded  from  over  1500  tests  made  by  this 
method  : 

1.  That  good  and  properly  handled  milk  should  not  co- 
agulate in  less  than  12  hours,  nor  show  anything  abnormal 
when  coagulated. 

2.  If  it  does,  it  shows  the  milk  to  be  abnormal,  either  on 
account  of  its  chemical  composition  or  because  it  is  impreg- 
nated with  too  much  ferment  (rather,  abnormal  ferments, 
causing  an  undesirable  fermentation). 

3.  Milk  from  sick  cows,  cows  that  are  strongly  in  heat, 
or  cows  with  diseased  udders  will  always  coagulate  in  less 
than  12  hours. 

4.  Only  about  20  per  cent  of  the  tests  coagulated  within 
12  hours. 

Monrad  proposes  the  following  rules  for  the  adoption  of 
this  test  by  cheese  factories  : 

1.  ■'  A  proper  journal  is  kept  of  all  the  tests. 

2.  "  The  patrons  whose  milk  is  tainted  have  to  pay  the 
cost  of  making  the  test. 

3.  "  The  patrons  whose  milk  is  tainted  will  be  kept  track 
of,  and  in  case  there  is  any  loss  caused  thereby  they  will 
have  to  stand  it. 

4.  "  Patrons  having  tainted  milk  shall  be  notified  at  once, 
and  another  test  made   three  days  later.      If  then  the  milk 
is  still  bad,  a  test  of   each  cow's  milk   is  made  on  the  farm 
and  otherwise  the  reason  sought  to  be  discovered,  and  until 
then  the  milk  will  be  refused." 


326  DATRYINTG. 

DETERMTNATTOX    OF   HUMIDITY  IX  CHEESE- 
CURIXG    ROOMS. 

The  proper  degree  of  humidity  in  the  cheese-curing 
room  will  vary  with  different  kinds  of  cheese  and  at  difter- 
ent  stages  of  the  curing  process.  Green  cheese  should  be 
placed  in  a  somewhat  drier  curing-room  than  older  ;  the 
latter  kinds,  according  to  Fleischmann,  require  a  relative 
humidity  of  go^-gs",  against  85"-qo"  for  green  cheese. 

Kirchner  states  that  the  humidity  of  curing-rooms  should 
not,  in  general,  go  below  So'  or  above  95°.  Temperature? 
from  so'-yo'  F.  are  preferable  in  the  curing-room. 

The  following  temperatures  and  percentages  of  humidity 
are  recommended  by  Martiny: 

Per  Cent 

Deg,  Fahr.  Humidity 
(a)  For  hard  cheeses  (Swiss,  etc.). 

Green 59-63  9"-95 

Half  cured 54-59  85-90 

Cured  50-54  80-9'; 

{b)  For  soft  cheeses  (Limburger,  etc.) 50-59  80-95 

In  the  interior  of  our  continent  it  is  somewhat  difficult 
to  obtain  as  much  moisture  in  the  air  of  curing-rooms  as  is 
represented  by  the  preceding  figures  ;  the  relative  humid- 
ity of  ordinary  curing-rooms  in  this  region,  therefore,  but 
rarely  goes  over  60".  A  higher  degree  of  humidity  may 
be  obtained  by  hanging  wet  sheets  of  canvas  in  the  curing- 
room  (Decker),  or  by  similar  devices,  as  described  in  the 
thirteenth  ann.  report  of  Wis.  Experiment  Station. 

Self-recording  thermometers  are  to  be  recommended  for 
use  in  curing-rooms.  For  observation  of  relative  humidity 
a  wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometer,  a  Mittchoff's  hygrometer, 
or  a  Lambrecht's  polj'meter  may  be  used  to  advantage. 
Any  of  these  instruments  may  be  obtained  through  dealers 
in  chemical  glassware  or  dairy  "Supplies;  the  prices  range 
from  $S  to  $30. 


CTTKRSR. 


ar? 


TABLE  SHOWING   THE   REIiATIA  E  HU3IIDITY    IN 
THE    AIR    OF    CURING-ROOMS.     (King) 

Directions.^ — Notice  that  the  table  is  in  three  column  sections.  Find 
air  temperature  in  fiist  column,  then  find  wet-bulb  temperature  in  second 
column,  same  divnsion.    In  third  column  opposite  this  is  relative  humidity. 

Example. — Air  temperature  is  50°,  in  first  column;  wet-bulb  is  44°,  in 
second  column,  same  division.  Opposite  44°  is  61,  which  is  the  percent 
of  saturation,  or  the  relative  humidity  of  the  air. 

Cautioti. — Fan  the  bulb  briskly  for  a  mumte  or  two  before  taking  reading. 


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DAIRYING. 


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77 

67 

59 

76 

91 

73 

72 

72 

^7 

68 

63 

74 

75 

73 

91 

69 

07 

66 

50 

75 

79 

74 

95 

70 

71 

79 

67 

53 

76 

83 

71 

74 

68 

57 

77 

87 

78 

92 

SCORE  FOR  JUDGING  CHEESE. 


World's 
Fair 

1893. 

45 
20 

15 
10 
10 

New  York,  1894. 

Wisconsin 
Dairymen's 
Assoc.  1894. 

For 
Export. 

For  Home 
Trade. 

Flavor 

45 
30 
15 

10 

50 
25 
15 

10 

45 

Texture  (and  body) 

C  olor 

Saltingf 

Make  up  (finish) 

30 
15 

10 

100 

100 

100 

100 

PERCENTAGE   COMPOSITION  OF  CHEESE.     (Konig.) 


Cream  clieese.. 
Full  cream  cheese 
Hall-skim  >  heese. 

Skim  cheese 

Sour-milk  cheese. 
Whey  cheese   . . . 


en 

1    , 

in 

u 

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C  X 

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V 

ij-o  E 

0  <u  y 

i< 

r3 

S  C   3 

Nitr 
fre 
tra 

27 

36-33 

40.71 

18  84 

1.02 

143 

38.00 

30.25 

25 -35 

1-43 

21 

39-79 

23.92 

29.67 

1.79 

41 

46.00 

II  .6<; 

34.06 

3-42 

15 

S2.S6 

16.03 

36.64 

.90 

7 

23.66 

16.91 

8.90 

45-75 

330 


DAIRYIXG. 


VARIETIES    AND    ANALYSES    OF    CHEESE. 

(McCONNELL.) 


British,  pressed  — 

Cheddar,  3  months 

6        "       

"  average 

Cheshire,  new.. 

old 

Derby  .   

Dunlop         

Gloucester  (single) 

•'  (double) 

British,  sf)ft — 

Cream    

Stilton   

French,  soft — 

Brie 

Camembert 

Gervais  (cream) 

Neufchatel. . .      

French,  pressed  — 

Gruyere 

Roquefort 

Dutch— 

Edam  (round) 

Gouda  (fiat) 

German  — 

Backstein . 

Swiss — 

Backstein 

Bellelay  (soft) 

Emmeiithaler 

Italian — 

Gorgonzola 

Parmesan 

Various^ 

American  factory 

Foreign  skim,  average 

German  sour  milk 

Whey  cheese  (cow) 

(goat) 

Centrifugal  skini-milkcheese 


Water.  1  Casein.      Fat.      Sugar. 


Per  ct. 

36  17 
31 .17 
34  38 
36  .■96 

32-59 
31.68 
38.46 
32.50 
35-96 

30.65 
30-35 

50-35 
50.  16 
52 -94 
44-47 

34-87 
31.20 

36.28 
21 .90 


Per  ct. 

24-93 
26.31 
26.38 
24.08 

32-51 
24.50 

25-87 
28.51 
21.74 

4  94 
28.85 

17.18 
21-S5 
11.80 
14 .60 

25-87 
27.63 

24.06 
46.95 


73.10  ,      19.80 


35.80 
37-59 
35-14 

44.04 
.^'•34 

25-93 
46.08 
6^63 
24.21 
25.29 
50-5 


24-44 
28.88 
30.86 

28.06 
41.99 

38  12 

33  37 

25.27 

9.06 

9.10 

43-» 


Per  ct. 

31-83 
33.68 

32.71 
29-34 
26.06 
35-20 
31-86 
28.23 
26.83 

62.99 
35-39 

25.12 
21 .13  I 
20.75 
33-70 

28. 91 
33-i6 

30.26 
24.81 

2.80 

37  40 
30  05 
31.00 

29.84 
19.22 

31-55 
10.54 

4-85 
20.80 
20.98 

1.2 


Per  ct. 
3.21 
4.91 

5-17 
4-53 
4.38 


2.58 


6.12 


41.01 
29.21 


Ash. 


Per  ct 

3.86 
3-9;-! 

3-58 

4-45 
4-31 
4.24 
3.81 
4.66 
4.07 

1.^5 
3.82 


41 
,89 

93 

,99 


3.84 
6.01 


.^.90 
6.3a 


2.36 
348 
4.00 

3.87 
6.25 

4  38 
3  8i 
3  67 

4-02 

3.88 

5  2 


DISTRIBUTION     OF      INGREDIENTS     IN     CHEESE- 
MAKING.     (CooKE.) 


Total 
Solids. 

Fat. 

Casein 

and 

Albumen. 

Milk- 
sugar. 

Ash. 

Cheese 

Cheese-press  drips . . . 
Whey 

Per  cent 
54-2 
-9 
44-9 

Per  cent 
90.6 

-4 
9.0 

Per  cent 

77-4 

-6 

22.0 

Per  cent 
50 
1-5 

93-5 

Per  cent 

36 

I 

63 

100. 0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100 

CHEESE. 


331 


DISTRIBUTION    OF     FERTILIZING     INGREDIENTS 
IN  CHEESE-3IAKING.     (Cooke.) 


Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Potash. 

looo  lbs.  of  whole  milk 

900  lbs.  of  whey 

lbs. 
5-3° 
1-35 
3-95 

lbs. 
1.90 
1.23 

.65 

lbs. 
1-75 
1.63 

ioo  lbs.  of  cheese 

YIELD  OF  CHEESE  FROM  MILK  OF  DIFFERENT 
FAT  CONTENTS. 


I     Yield  of 
Per  cent  Fat  Cheese  from 
in  Milk.         100  Lbs.  of 
Milk. 


Lbs. 

5  5 
6.55 


Milk  per 

Pound  of 

Cheese. 


Lbs. 

18.2 
15-3 
12. 5 


Per  cent  Fat 
in  Milk. 


Yield  of 

Cheese  from 

100  Lbs   of 

Mi.k. 


Lbs. 
9.15 
10.8 


Milk  per 
Pound  of 
Cheese. 


Lbs. 


9  3 


The  quality  of  the  cheese  and  its  food  value  improve  with  the 
increase  of  fat  in  the  milk  from  which  it  is  made,      (Decker.) 

FORMULAS  FOR  FINDING  YIELD  OF   CHEDDAR 

CHEESE. 

The  approximate  yield  of  green  cheddar  cheese  from  100 
lbs.  of  milk  may  be  found  by  multiplying  the  per  cent  of 
fat  in  the  milk  by  2.7;  if  y"  designate  the  per  cent  of  fat  in 
the  milk,  the  formula  will  therefore  be: 

Yield  of  cheese  =  2.7/". 

The  factor  2.7  will  only  hold  good  as  the  average  of  a 
large  number  of  cases.  In  extensive  investigations  during 
three  consecutive  years  Van  Slyke  found  that  the  number 
of  pounds  of  green  cheese  manufactured  for  one  pound  of 
fat  in  the  milk  varied  from  2.51  to  3.06,  the  average  figures 
being  2.73,  2.71,  and  2.72,  for  1892-94,  respectively.  For 
cured  cheese  the  factor  w'ill  be  somewhat  lower,  viz.,  about 
2.6  on  the  average. 

If  the  percentage  of  solids  not  fat  and  of  fat  in  the  sam- 
ple of  milk  are  known,  the  following  formula,  published  by 
Dr.  Babcock    in   the    twelfth   report   of   the  Wisconsin    Ex- 


332 


DATPKYlKr,. 


periment  Station,  will  give  close  results  (s  =  Folids  not  fat; 
/=fat): 

Yield  of  green  cheese  =  i.58(ij -h  .91/)- 

This  formula  is  based  on  a  water  content  of  37  per  cent 
in  the  cheese;  it  may  be  readily  changed  to  suit  any  par- 
ticular per  cent.  The  average  percentages  of  water  in 
green  cheese  in  Van  Slyke's  investigations  referred  to 
above  were  36..)!,  3705,  and  36.70  per  cent  for  the  years 
1892-94,  respectively. 

If  the  percentages  of  casein  and  fat  in  the  milk  are  both 
known,  the  yield  of  cheese  may  be  calculated  from  the  fol- 
lowing formula,  which  will  give  fairly  correct  results: 

Yield  of  cheese  =  1.1/4-  2.5  casein.         (Babcock.) 


YIELD  OF  DIFFERENT  KIXDS  OF  CHEESE  FROM 
100    LBS.  OF    MILK.     (Fleischmann.) 


Green 

Cured 

Cheese. 

Cheese. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Soft   full-cream   cheese  intended    for   immediate 

consumption 

25-33 

Very  soft  full-cream  cheeses  (Brie,  Camerabert, 

Neufch.-itel,  etc.). . .       

18-22 

12-15 

Somewhat  firmer,  full-cream  soft  cheeses  (Lim- 

burger,  Remondon  cheese,  etc  ) 

13-16 

9-1 1 

Soft  half-skim  cheese  ( Limburfj),  ij  lbs.  butter  and 

12-13 

9-3  1 

Soft  skim  cheeses  {d  la  Brie.  (  amembert,  Livarot. 

Backstein,  etc.).  3-3.4  lbs.  butter  and   

7.5-12 

6.5-0 

Roquefort  cheese  (made  from  sheeps'  milk) 

18 

12-14.5 

Full-milk,  from  American  and  English  cheeses, 

9-1 1 

8-9 

and  .75  lbs.  whey-butter. 

Full-milk  from  Dutch  and  Swiss  cheeses 

8-1 1 

7-10 

and  .75  lbs.  whey-butter. 

Half-skim  firm  cheeses,  1.6  lbs.  butter  and 

7-10 

5-8 

Skim-milk  cheese,  3-3  5  lbs   butter  and 

5-7 
7-5-9 
3-5-5-5 

4-6 
5-6 
2-3 

Sour- mi  Ik  cheese   335  lbs   butter  and 

and  3-3.5  lbs.  butter. 

6-7 

and  butter  and  skim-milk  cheese. 

Whey  in  manufacture  of  full-cream  cheese,  73-88  lbs.,  average  81  lbs. 
"      "  *'  "  half-skim        "         72-80    "  "        76   " 

"      "  "  "  skim  cheese  66-76    "  "        71    *' 

Under  similar  conditions  5-7  lbs.  less  of  whey  are  obtained  in  the  manu 
facture  of  soft  cheese  than  in  that  of  firm  cheese. 

The  loss  sustained  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese  amounts  on  the  averare 
to  3  lbs.  per  100  lbs  of  milk,  not  considering  the  'os^es  incurred  in  ihe 
wuring  of  the  cheese. 


ClIEE-E. 


333 


AVER AGF.   TjOSS    OF    AMFCICAX    CHEDDAR 
CHEESE    1\  CLlllXG.      (Babcuck.) 


Period 
Covered 

.Averasre 
A<;e. 

No.  nf 
Clieese. 

Total 
Wejujit 
Green. 

Total 
Weight 

Loss. 

-A'^ 

Cured. 

Davs. 

Davs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Per  Cent. 

I 

i-i  J 

6 

•  9 

2,Sl2 

2.741.5 

70.5 

2  51 

2 

1  I-20 

16 

242 

7-356.9 

7,077.0 

2  70  9 

3-   0 

3 

2! -30 

25 

298 

8o3o-5 

8,160.4 

^70. 1 

4-34 

4 

3T-60 

41 

417 

I2-353-3 

11,684  4 

668.  q 

5  41 

5 

Over  60 

141 

172 

6,244.4 

5-736.0 

508.4 

8. II 

Total  number  of  cheese  in  preceding  trials  ..    .12-5. 

Average  weiyht  of  green  cheese     .   .    ..   ....         ....  .30.2  lbs. 

"  temperature  of  curing-room. ...  .61°  F.  (range  55-70°), 

"  humidity  of  air  in  curing-room     50  per  cent. 

LOSS    IX     WEIGHT     OF     DIFFEFIF^XT     KIXDS     OF 

CHEI^SE   DUIIIXG    CUHIXG.      (Martinv.) 

Per  Cent. 
Swiss  (Eminenthal)  — 

made  from  whole  milk  will  lose  in 5  months.   8-14 

"  "      half-skimmed  milk  will  lose  in  8         "         15-20 

"  "      skim-milk  will  lose  in 6         "         12-15 

Tilsit- 
made  from  whole  milk  will  lose  in 4         "         12-25 

Dutch  (Gouda) — 

made  from  whole   milk  will  lose  in 3         "         20-2S 

"      skim       "         "       "      " 4        "         15-25 

American  Cheddar — 

made  from  whole  milk  will  lose  in 2         "  5 

"       "     " 4         '•  6-7 

Limburcjer  or  Remoudon  — 

made  from  whole  milk  will  lose  in 2i      "         16-28 

Brick  cheese — 

made  from  skim-milk  will  l(jse  in 2!       "         15-30 

Camembert,  Brie,  Ncufchatel,  etc. — ■ 

made  from  whole  milk  will  lose  in 2         "         20-35 

Sour-milk  cheese — 

made  from  whole  milk  will  lose  in 3J       "         50-60 


I 


334 


DAIRYING. 


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CHEESE.  335 


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CHEESE. 


336a 


THE  CHEESI]   MARKET  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES. 


Hard  Cheeses. 


English  cheddar  (best) 

Canadian  or  American  cheddar 

Edam 

Swiss 

Parmesan 

Soft  or  Fancy  Cheeses. 

Camembert 

Gorgonzola 

Stilton  (be?t) 

Amer."  Neufchatel"  and  Cream 


Milk. 


Whole  milk 
Wliole  inilk 
Low  fat 
Low  fat 
Low  fat 

3-5-4%  fart 

Whole  milk 

Wliole  milk 

Mostly    poor 

in  fat 


Yield  of 
Cheese  per 
loolbs.Milk 


g-ii 
g-ii 
8-II 
8-1 1 
8-1 1 


12-15 
Q-II 

8-IO 
12-14  (^) 


Ripening. 


6-12  mo. 

3-12  mo. 
Long  period 
Long  period 

2-3  years 

4  weeks 

4  months 

3-6  months 

Eaten  fresh 


Hard  Cheeses. 


English  cheddar  (best) 

Canadian  or  American  cheddar 

Edam 

Swiss 

Paimesan 

Soft  or  Fancy  Cheeses. 

Camembert.  .  , 

Gorgonzola 

Stilton  (best) 

Amer."  Neufchatel  "  andCream 


Market- 
able 
Period. 

6  mo.  or  more 

Months 

Very  long 

Very  long 

Very  long 

10  days 

1-2  mo. 
2  mo.  (?) 
Few  days 


Retail  Price  per  Pound. 


Europe.     | 

$0 

22- 

-26 

0 

iS' 

0 

is- 

-24 

0 

24- 

-28 

0 

32 

0 

26- 

■36 

0 

25- 

24 

0 

25- 

-35 

U.S. 


o . 1 4- 1 8 

o  .33 
o. 26-35 


o . 50-70 

0.45 

o  .  45-60 
o    20-60 


*  London,  October,  1905. 

COM31EKCIALi  GRADES  OF  AMERICAN  CHED- 
DAR  CHEESE.     (Ontario  Dept.  of  A<5R1culture.) 

First  Grade. — Flavor. — Clean,  sound,  and  pure. 

Body  and  Texture. — Close,  firm,  and  silky. 

Color. — Good  and  uniform. 

Finish. — Fai.^ly  even  in  size,  smoothly  finished,  sound  and 
clean  surfaces,  straight,  and  square. 

Boxes. — Strong,  clean,  well  made,  and  nailed.  Ends  to  be 
of  seasoned  timber.  Close  fitting.  Weights  stenciled  or  marked 
with  rubber  stamp. 

Second  Grade. — Flavor. — "Fruity,"  not  clean,  "lurnipy," 
or  other  objectionable  flavor. 

Body  and  Texture. — Weak,  open,  loose,"  acidy,"  too  soft,  too  dry. 

Color. — Uneven,  mottled,  or  objectionable  shade. 

Finish. — Very  uneven  in  size,  showing  rough  corners,  black 
mold,  dirty  or  cracked  surfaces,  soft  rinds. 

Boxes. — Too  large  in  diameter;  top  edge  of  box  more  than 
\  an  inch  below  the  top  of  the  cheese.  Made  of  light  material. 
Ends  made  of  imjjrnpcrly  seasoned  material. 


3366  DAIRYING. 

Third  Grade. — Flavor. — Rancid,  badly  "off,"  anything 
inferior  to  Second  Grade. 

Body  and  Texture. — Very  weak,  very  open,  showing  pinholes 
or  porous,  very  "  acidy,"  very  soft  or  very  dry. 

Color. — Badly  mottled,  or  very  objectionable  shade. 

Finish. — Anything  worse  than  second  grade. 

Boxes. — No  question  of  boxes  sufiicient  to  make  Third  Grade 
if  other  qualities  are  good. 

Explanations. — It  would  be  impossible  to  define  exactly  the 
qualities  or  defects  which  may  appear  in  cheese.  The  standards 
given  are  intended  to  indicate  the  range  of  quality  for  the  different 
grades  rather  than  to  establish  hard  and  fast  rules  to  guide  the 
grader. 

The  expression  "good  color"  means  that  the  color  must  be  of 
proper  shade.  There  are  cheap,  inferior  cheese  colors  used  which 
do  not  give  the  proper  shade,  no  matter  whaL  quality  is  used. 

The  expression  "clean  surfaces"  in  the  definition  for  First 
Grade  does  not  exclude  from  that  grade  cheese  with  a  slight 
growth  of  blue  mold,  although  it  is  desirable  that  the  cheese 
should  not  show  any  signs  of  mold.  "Black  mold"  (see  defini- 
tion for  Second  Grade),  is  simply  the  advancerl  stage  of  the 
ordinary  blue  mold. 

The  following  scale  of  points  will  indicate  the  relative  values 
of  the  different  divisions  of  quality:  Flavor,  40;  body  and  tex- 
ture, 30;    color,  15;   finish  and  boxing,  15;    =100. 

It  is  obvious  that  a  defect  in  flavor  of  a  certain  degree  counts 
nearly  three  times  as  much  in  determining  the  grade  as  a  defect 
in  finish  or  boxing  of  the  same  grade. 

Cheese  which  are  strictly  sour,  or  otherwise  inferior  to  Third 
Grade,  will  be  designated  as  ^' Culls"  for  which  there  is  no 
classification. 

Any  lot  of  cheese  shall  be  considered  third  grade  if  it  shows 
three  or  more  defects  of  Second  Grade  class. 

If  there  are  not  more  than  15  per  cent  of  defective  cheese  in 
any  lot,  the  inferior  ones  may  be  sorted  out  and  classed  sepa- 
rately. If  more  than  15  per  cent  are  defective,  the  classification 
for  the  defective  cheese  may  apply  to  the  whole  lot. 

This  does  not  apply  when  inferior  cheese  have  been  properly 
marked  so  as  to  be  identified,  in  which  case  the  inferior  cheese 
shall  be  treated  as  a  separate  lot. 


CHEESE. 


337 


AVHEY  TO  BE  AliLOAVED  AT  CHEESE  FACTORIES 
FOli  QL  AXTITIES  OF  MILK  FllOM  30  TO  300 
POUNDS.    (Robertson.) 

The  figures  in  the  columns  denote  the  inches  of  whey. 


Weigh  I  of 

Diameters 

of  Milk-cans 

in  Inches. 

Milk  in 

, 

Pounds. 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

30 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

35 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

40 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

6 

7 

45 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

50 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

55 

4 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

60 

4 

5 

5 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

II 

65 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

70 

5 

5 

6 

7 

7 

8 

10 

II 

13 

75 

5 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

14 

80 

5 

6 

7 

8 

8 

10 

II 

12 

15 

85 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

13 

16 

90 

6 

7 

7 

9 

9 

II 

12 

14 

17 

95 

6 

7 

8 

•  9 

10 

II 

13 

15 

18 

100 

7 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

14 

16 

19 

105 

7 

8 

9 

9 

II 

13 

'5 

16 

19 

no 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

13 

15 

17 

20 

"5 

8 

9 

10 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

21 

120 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

14 

'7 

19 

22 

1-^5 

8 

9 

10 

II 

13 

15 

17 

19 

23 

130 

9 

10 

II 

12 

'3 

16 

18 

20 

24 

135 

9 

10 

1 1 

12 

14 

16 

19 

21 

140 

9 

10 

12 

'3 

14 

17 

20 

22 

145 

10 

11 

12 

13 

15 

17 

20 

23 

150 

10 

II 

12 

14 

15 

18 

21 

24 

155 

10 

1 1 

^3 

15 

16 

'9 

22 

160 

ji 

12 

13 

15 

16 

■  '9 

22 

165 

II 

12 

14 

t6 

17 

20 

23 

170 

II 

12 

14 

16 

17 

20 

23 

175 

12 

13 

15 

16 

18 

21 

24 

:8o 

12 

13 

IS 

17 

18 

22 

24 

185 

12 

14 

15 

17 

19 

22 

igo 

13 

14 

16 

j8 

19 

23 

195 

'3 

H 

16 

18 

20 

23 

200 

13 

15 

17 

18 

20 

24 

205 

14 

'5 

17 

19 

21 

210 

14 

16 

18 

'9 

21 

215 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

220 

15 

■  16 

18 

20 

23 

225 

15 

17 

»9 

21 

24 

230 

15 

17 

19 

21 

24 

235 

16 

18 

19 

22 

240 

i6 

18 

20 

22 

245 

16 

18 

20 

23 

250 

17 

19 

21 

23 

260 

17 

J9 

22 

24 

270 

18 

20 

22 

280 

19 

21 

23 

290 

19 

22 

24 

3C0 

20 

23 

24 

310 

21 

23 

320 

21 

24 

330 

22 

340 

23 

350 

23 

360 

24 

338  DAIRYING. 


VI.   MANAGEMENT    OF    CREAMERIES    AND 
CHEESE    FACTORIES.    • 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  TAKING  AND  PRKSKRVING 
COMPOSITE  SAMPLES  OF  MILK  IN  CREAMER- 
IES AND  CHEESE-FACTORIES.     (Farkington). 

The  modern  creamery  and  cheese-factory  uses  the  Bab- 
cock  test  for  determining  the  quality  of  the  milk  delivered 
by  each  patron.  The  most  common  and  satisfactory  method 
of  paying  for  the  milk  according  to  its  test  is  to  take  a  small 
sample  of  each  lot  of  milk  each  day,  pour  this  into  a  cov- 
ered glass  jar  containing  a  small  amount  of  some  preserva- 
tive, and  at  the  end  of  a  week  or  ten  days  test  this  composite 
sample.  The  essential  features  of  the  process  are  given  in 
the  following  directions: 

1.  Provide  a  pint  or  quart  jar  or  bottle  for  each  patron. 

2.  Label  each  bottle  with  a  number,  giving  the  same 
number  to  a  patron  on  the  milk-recording  sheet. 

3.  Composite  test  sample-bottles  made  for  this  purpose 
with  a  tin  cover  and  numbered  brass  tag  wired  to  the  neck 
of  each  bottle  can  be  obtained  of  creamery  supply-firms. 

4.  These  sample-bottles  should  be  placed  on  shelves 
within  easy  reach  of  the  man  at  the  weigh-can,  and  pro- 
tected from  the  light. 

5.  A  small  quantity  of  powdered  potassium  bichromate, 
ccjrrosive  sublimate,  formaldehyd,  borax,  or  preservaline  is 
out  into  each  clean  bottle,  to  keep  the  milk  from  souring  until 
testing-day.  Some  of  these  preservatives  are  put  up  in 
tablet  form,  each  tablet  containing  the  necessary  amount 
to  use  in  one  sample. 

6.  After  each  lot  of  milk  is  poured  into  the  factory  weigh- 
can  and^  weighed,  a  small  amount  of  it  is  dipped  from  the 
can  and  poured  into  the  proper  sample-bottle. 

7.  These   samples   are   usually  taken  with  a  small  (i-oz^ 


CREAMERIES   AKD    CHEESE   FACTORIES.        339 

tin  dipper,  a  Scovell  sampling-tube,  or  from  a  drip  in  the 
conductor-spout. 

8.  Each  lot  of  milk  sampled  must  be  sweet,  containing 
no  clots,  lumps  of  curdled  milk,  or  small  butter-granules. 
The  sample  should  be  taken  just  as  soon  as  the  milk  is 
weighed,  and  while  it  is  evenly  mixed. 

9.  The  use  of  a  small  (i-oz.)  tin  dipper  for  taking  the 
composite  sample  has  been  proved  to  be  practically  correct. 
As  the  quantities  of  milk  delivered  from  day  to  day  by 
each  patron  vary  but  little,  the  error  introduced  by  taking 
the  same  amount  of  milk  for  each  sample  is  too  small  to 
be  worth  considering  in  factory  work,  and  this  method  of 
composite  sampling  is  usually  adopted  in  separator  cream- 
eries and  in  cheese-factories,  where  the  payment  of  the 
milk  is  based  on  its  quality. 

10.  When  it  is  desired  to  vary  the  size  of  the  samples  ac- 
cording to  the  quantity  of  milk  delivered  each  day  by  a 
patron,  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  "milk-thief"  or  a  Scovell 
sampling-tube.  In  using  either  of  these  tubes,  the  size  of 
the  sample  is  regulated  by  the  amount  of  milk  in  the  weigh- 
can.      In  all  cases  cylindrical  sampling-cans  must  be  used. 

11.  Continue  adding  a  sample  of  each  patron's  milk  to  his 
particular  jar  every  time  he  delivers  milk,  for  a  week  or  ten 
days  ;  then  test  this  composite  sample. 

12.  The  composite  sample-jars  should  be  kept  covered, 
to  prevent  loss  by  evaporation,  and  in  a  cool,  dark  place. 
Every  time  a  new  portion  of  milk  is  added  to  the  jar  it 
should  be  given  a  horizontal  rotary  motion  to  mix  the  cream 
already  formed  in  the  jar  with  the  milk,  and  to  rinse  off  the 
cream  sticking  to  its  side.  Unless  this  is  done  every  time 
fresh  portions  of  milk  are  added  to  the  jar  the  cream  on  the 
milk  becomes  lumpy  and  sticks  in  patches  to  the  side  of 
the  jar,  thus  making  it  nearly  impossible  to  evenly  dis- 
tribute this  cream  through  the  entire  sample. 

13.  Composite  samples  having  patches  of  dried  cream  on 
the  inside  of  the  jar  are  the  result  of  carelessness  or  igno- 
rance on  the  part  of  the  operator. 

14.  A  test  of  the  composite  sample  takes  the  place  of  the 
daily  tests  of  each  lot  of  milk  and  gives  accurate  ^nfornia- 


340  DAIRYING. 

tion  regarding  the  average  quality  of  the  milk  delivered  by 
each  patron  during  the  period  of  sampling. 

15.  The  weight  of  butter-fat  which  each  patron  brought 
to  factory  in  his  milk  during  the  time  covered  by  the  sam- 
pling is  obtained  by  muliiplying  the  total  weight  of  milk 
delivered  during  the  sampling  period  by  the  test  of  the 
composite  sample,  divided  by  100. 

PAYMENT  OF  MILK  AT  CREAMERIES  AND 
CHEESE  FACTORIES.* 

Numerous  systematic  and  extensive  experiments  by  vari- 
ous scientists  have  proved  that  the  value  of  milk  for  both 
butter  and  cheese  production  stands  in  direct  proportion  to 
its  fat  content.  Patrons  of  separator  cheese  and  butter 
factories  should  therefore  receive  payment  for  the  milk  de- 
livered by  them  according  to  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the 
milk,  i.e.,  according  to  the  quantity  of  fat  delivered  in  their 
milk.  The  same  applies  to  gathered-cream  factories  as 
well. 

The  tables  given  on  pp.  305-306  will  aid  in  the  calculation 
of  the  value  of  milks  of  different  richness,  according  to 
prices  agreed  upon.  In  paying  for  the  milk  delivered  by 
patrons,  four,  or,  essentially,  three,  different  methods  are 
followed  at  different  factories,  all  of  which  are  just  to  all 
parties  concerned.  The  methods  and  the  directions  for 
using  the  tables  in  each  case  are  given  below.  The  tables 
and  discussions  entered  upon  are  largely  taken  from  Ver- 
mont Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  16. 

*  Cee  Farrin zton-Woll,  Testing  Milk  and  its  Products,  22d  Ed.,  pp. 
203-216,  286-289. 


CREAMERIES   AND   CHEESE    FACTOKTKS.  341 

METHODS  OF  PAYMENT  FOR  MILK  AT  CHEESE 
AND  BUTTER  FACTORIES. 

1.  A  certain  price  is  to  be  paid  per  one  hundred  lbs.  of  milk 
containing  a  defijiite  per  cent  of  fat  (e.g.,  $i.oo  per  loo  lbs. 
of  four  per  cent  milk).  By  referring  to  the  second  half  of 
the  table  on  p.  271  we  find  $1.00  opposite  4.00  per  cent  of 
fat;  the  figures  in  the  same  column  as  $1.00  then  give  the 
value  of  100  lbs.  of  milk  containing  percentages  of  fat  rang- 
ing from  3.00  to  5.00;  e.g.,  100  lbs.  of  3  per  cent  milk  is 
worth  75  cents,  of  4.5  per  cent  milk  $1.13.  of  5.40  per  cent 
milk  $1.35,  etc. 

2.  A  certain  price  is  to  be  paid  per  pound  of  fat  delivered. 
If  21  cents  is  the  price  agreed  upon  we  multiply  .21  by  three, 
and  the  product,  .63,  gives  the  amount  in  dollars  to  be  paid 
per  100  lbs.  of  three  per  cent  milk.  The  column  in  which 
the  figure  .63  occurs  opposite  3.0  per  ct.  is  then  to  be  used 
in  the  calculations  as  long  as  the  price  is  paid,  and  3.5  per 
cent  milk  will  be  paid  with  73  cents  per  100  lbs.,  5.3  per  ct. 
milk  $1.10  per  100  lbs.,  etc. 

Example  :  Patron  A  delivers  840  lbs.  of  milk  during  one 
week,  containing,  according  to  the  test  made,  4.3  per  cent 
fat.  If  the  price  agreed  upon  per  ["cund  of  fat  w^as  as  be- 
fore stated,  he  is  to  receive  90  cents  per  100  lbs.  of  milk,  or 
$7.56  in  all. 

Patron  B,  sending  625  lbs.  of  milk  testing  3.45  per  cent, 
wnll  receive  6.25  X  .72  =  84.50,  etc.  In  the  table  only 
tenths  of  per  cents  are  given;  3.45  being  half-way  between 
3.40  and  3.50,  for  which  percentages  71  and  73  cents  are  to 
be  paid  respectively,  we  multiply  by  the  mean  of  the  two 
values,  or  .72.  If  a  test  differs  less  than  five-hundredths 
from  any  percentages  given  in  the  table,  the  nearest  figure 
is  chosen. 

3.  Patrons  are  to  be  paid  what  is  received  for  the  butter,  less 
a  certain  amount  for  cost  of  making  and  marketing.  Multiply 
each  man's  milk  by  the  per  cent  of  fat  it  contains,  and  the 
sum  of  the  several  products  will  be  the  total  amount  of  fat 
contained  in  the  day's  milk.  Divide  the  pounds  of  butter 
made  from   the  milk  by  the  pounds  of  fat  it  contained,  to 


oii  DAIRYING. 

find  how  much  butter  each  pound  of  fat  makes.  Multiply- 
ing the  amount  received  per  pound  of  butter,  less  the  cost 
of  making,  etc.,  by  this  last  result  will  give  the  amount  to 
be  paid  for  each  pound  of  fat  delivered. 

Example :  Suppose  the  patrons  furnish  milk  containing 
in  all  400  lbs.  of  fat,  which  made  460  lbs.  of  butter,  selling 
for  27  cents  per  pound.  The  expense  of  making  the  butter 
is  found  to  be,  e.g.,  4  cents  per  pound.  27-4=  23  cents; 
460  divided  by  400  equals  1.15;  23  multiplied  by  1.15  equals 
26.45,  which  is  the  amount,  in  cents,  to  be  paid  per  pound 
of  fat  delivered;  26.45  X  3  =  79-35.  or  nearest  79  cents,  is 
then  the  money  to  be  paid  for  100  lbs.  of  3  per  cent  milk, 
and  (see  table)  90  cents  for  100  lbs.  of  3.40  per  cent  milk, 
$1.24  for  100  lbs.  of  4.7  per  cent  milk,  etc. 

4.  A  certain  price  is  to  be  paid  per  100  lbs.  of  milk  of  average 
quality.  Find  the  total  fat  contained  in  the  milk  as  before; 
divide  this  amount  by  the  total  weight  of  milk  delivered, 
and  the  result  will  be  the  average  per  cent  of  fat  in  the 
milk.  Starting  from  this  per  cent  at  the  left  of  the  table, 
go  to  the  right  until  the  price  per  100  lbs.  agreed  upon  is 
reached;  the  perpendicular  column  in  which  this  figure  is 
found  is  the  one  to  be  used.  Example :  Suppose  milk  of 
average  quality  is  to  be  paid  Sii.oo  per  hundred  pounds, 
and  the  farmers  furnish  8500  lbs.  of  milk,  containing  in  all 
440  lbs.  of  fat;  440  divided  by  85.00  then  equals  5.18,  the 
number  nearest  to  which  in  the  table  is  5.20  per  cent.  To 
the  right  of  5.20  per  cent  $1.00  is  found  in  the  column 
headed  .58,  which  column  would  be  the  one  to  use. 


CREAMKRTKS    AND    CHKESE    FArTOKIES. 


oi-J 


PRICE  OF  MILK  OF  DIFFERENT   RICHNESS   PER 
100   POUNDS. 


P.  ct. 

Fat. 


Price  per  loo  lbs.  of  Milk,  in  dollars  and  cents. 


1 .00 
1.03 
1.07 
1. 10 
1-13 


T-    7 
1 .20 


1 .27 


1-33 
1-37 
1.40 

1-43 
1.47 

1.50 
1-53 
1-57 
1 .60 
1.63 

1.67 
I  -  70 

1-73 
1.77 
1.80 


1.87 
I  .go 

1-93 
1.97 
2.00 


•97 
.00 


.07 


1-13 
1. 16 
1. 19 
1.23 
1.26 

1.29 
1.32 
1-35 
1-39 
1 .42 

1-45 
1.48 
1.52 
1-55 
1.58 

1. 61 
1.65 
1.68 
1. 71 
1-74 

1-77 
1.81 
I  84 
1.87 
1.90 
1.94 


•94 

•97 

1 .00 

1.03 

1 .06 


1 .09 
1 .  12 
1.16 
1.19 
1 .22 

^•25 
1.28 

^•31 
1-34 
1.38 

1. 41 
1.44 
1.47 

1.50 
1-53 

I  56 
^•59 
1 .63 
1.66 
1.69 

1 .72 

1-75 
1.78 
T.81 
1.84 


.91 
•94 
•97 

T  .00 
1.03 

I  .06 
I  .09 
I  .12 

1.18 

I. 21 
1.24 
1.27 
1.30 

1-33 

1.36 

I  39 

1 .42 

1^45 


1-52 
^■h5 
1.58 
I. fit 
1.64 

1 .67 
1 .70 

1-73 
1.76 
1.79 
1.82 


.91 

94 

■97 

1 .00 

1.03 
1 .06 
1 .09 

T  .  12 
^•I5 

1.18 
1. 21 
I  .24 

I  .26 
I  .29 

1.32 

1-35 
1.3S 
1. 41 
1.44 

I  47 
1.50 

1-53 
1.56 
1-59 

1 .62 
1.65 
I  68 
1. 71 
1.74 
1 .76 


.86 
.89 
.91 
■94 

•97 

1 .00 
1 .03 
1.06 
1 .09 


1. 14 
1.17 
1 .20 
1 .23 
1 .26 

1 .29 
131 
1-34 
1-37 
1.40 

1-43 
I  46 
1.49 

1^54 

^•57 
1.60 
1 .63 
1.66 
1.69 
1. 71 


•83 


.92 
•94 

•97 
1 .00 
1.03 
1 .06 
1.08 

I. II 

1. 14 
1. 17 
I. 19 
1 .22 

1.25 
1.28 
^•31 
1-33 
1.36 

^•39 
1.42 
1.44 
1^47 
1-50 

'■53 
1.56 
1.58 
1. 61 
1 .64 
1 .67 


.84 


.92 

•95 

•97 

1 .00 

I  •03 

1 .06 

1.08 
1 .11 
1. 14 

1. 17 
1. 19 

1 .22 
1.25 
1.28 
1.30 
I  33 

T  .36 

1-39 
1. 41 
1.44 
1.47 

1.50 

1-55 
1-57 
1 .60 
1 .62 


•79 
.82 
.85 
.87 
.90 

•93 

•95 

.98 

1 .00 

1.03 

1.06 
1.08 
1 .11 
1. 14 

1.16 

i.i9 
1. 21 
1.24 
1 .27 
1 .29 


I  •35 
1^37 
1.40 
1 .42 

1.45 
1.48 
I  50 
1-53 
1.56 
1.58 


■77 
•79 
.82 
.84 

.87 


.92 

•94 

•97 

1 .00 

1 .02 
1.05 
1 .07 
1 .  10 
1. 12 

I-I5 
1. 17 
I  20 
1.23 
^•25 

1.28 
1 .30 
1-33 
1-35 
1.38 

I  41 
1.44 
1.46 
1.49 
I-5I 
154 


3.00 

•75 

•73 

•71 

.70 

.63 

.67 

•65 

.64 

•63 

.61 

3.10 

78 

•75 

•73 

.72 

.70 

.69 

.67 

.66 

•b5 

.63 

3.20 

.80 

.78 

.76 

•75 

•73 

•71 

.69 

.68 

.b7 

•65 

3^3o 

.83 

.80 

•78 

•77 

■75 

■74 

•72 

.70 

.69 

.67 

3.40 

.85 

•83 

.81 

•79 

•77 

.76 

•74 

•73 

•71 

.69 

350 

.88 

.8s 

•83 

.82 

•7^ 

.78 

.76 

•75 

•73 

•7^ 

3.60 

.90 

.88 

.85 

.84 

.82 

.8u 

•78 

•77 

•75 

•73 

3^70 

•93 

.90 

.88 

.86 

.84 

.«3 

.80 

•79 

•77 

.75 

3.80 

•95 

•93 

.90 

.89 

.86 

•85 

.82 

.8r 

.80 

•77 

3-90 

.98 

•95 

.92 

.91 

.88 

.87 

.85 

•83 

.82 

•79 

4.00 

1. 00 

•97 

•95 

•93 

.91 

.89 

•87 

.85 

•  84 

.81 

4.10 

'■03 

1 .00 

.97 

.96 

•93 

.91 

.89 

•87 

.86 

•83 

4  20 

1.05 

1 .02 

1 .00 

.98 

•95 

•  94 

.91 

.90 

.88 

•85 

4  •SO 

1.08 

1.05 

1 .02 

1 .00 

.98 

.96 

■93 

.92 

.go 

.88 

4.40 

1. 10 

1.07 

1.05 

1 .02 

1. 00 

.98 

•95 

•94 

.92 

.90 

344 


DAinVlXG. 


PRICE  OF  MILK  PER  100  FOV^DS.— Continued. 


P.  ct, 
Fat. 


Price  per  loo  lbs.  of  Milk,  in  dollars  and  cents. 


113 

1 .10 

1.07 

1.05 

1.02 

1. 00 

•97 

1-15 

1 .  12 

1. 10 

I  07 

1.05 

1.02 

1. 00 

1. 18 

IIS 

1. 12 

T.09 

1.07 

1.04 

1 .02 

1.20 

1. 17 

t.14 

1.12 

1.09 

1.07 

1.07 

1.23 

1.20 

1. 17 

1.14 

I.  II 

i.og 

1.07 

I -25 

1 .22 

1. 19 

1. 16 

1. 14 

I. II 

1 .09 

1.28 

1.24 

I. 21 

1. 19 

1. 16 

1-13 

I.H 

1.30 

1.27 

1.24 

1. 21 

1. 18 

1. 16 

I-I3 

I  33 

I.2Q 

I  .26 

123 

1 .20 

1. 18 

115 

1-35 

1.32 

I  .29 

1.26 

1.23 

1 .20 

1.17 

1.38 

1-34 

I-3I 

1.28 

1-25 

1.22 

1.20 

1.40 

1-37 

1.34 

i.30 

1.27 

1.24 

1.22 

1-43 

1-39 

1.36 

1-33 

1 .30 

1.27 

T.24 

'•45 

1. 41 

1.39 

1-35 

1.32 

1 .29 

1.26 

1.48 

1.44 

1.41 

1.38 

1-34 

1-31 

1.28 

1.50 

1 .46 

'•43 

1 .40 

1. 30 

1-33 

1.30 

.96 
.98 

1. 00 
1.02 
1 .04 

1 .06 
1.09 
I. II 

113 
115 

1. 17 
I  19 

I. 21 
I  .23 
1.26 
1.28 


•Q2 

•94 
.96 


1 .02 
1.04 
1.06 
1.08 
1. 10 


1.12 
1. 14 
1.16 
1. 18 
1.20 
1 .22 


3.00 

.60 

•59 

.58 

•57 

•56 

•55 

•54 

•53 

■52 

•51 

•50 

3.10 

.62 

.61 

.60 

•59 

.58 

•57 

•56 

■55 

•54 

•53 

■52 

3.20 

.64 

.63 

.62 

.61 

.60 

•59 

•58 

•57 

•55 

•54 

•53 

330 

.66 

•65 

.64 

.63 

.62 

.60 

•59 

•58 

•57 

•5^^ 

•55 

3.40 

.68 

.67 

.66 

•65 

•63 

.62 

.61 

.60 

•59 

•58 

•57 

3  •50 

.70 

.69 

.68 

.66 

•65 

.64 

•63 

.62 

.61 

•59 

58 

3.60 

•72 

•71 

.70 

.68 

.67 

.66 

.65 

.64 

.62 

.61 

.60 

3-70 

•74 

•73 

•71 

.70 

.69 

.68 

.67 

•65 

•  64 

•^3 

.62 

3.80 

.76 

•75 

•73 

•72 

•71 

.70 

.68 

.67 

.66 

•<^5 

.6, 

3.90 

.78 

•77 

•75 

•74 

•73 

•71 

.70 

.69 

.67 

.66 

.65 

4.00 

.80 

•79 

•77 

.76 

•75 

■73 

.72 

•71 

.69 

.f8 

67 

4.10 

.82 

.81 

•79 

.78 

.76 

•75 

•74 

•72 

•7' 

.70 

.68 

4.20 

.84 

.83 

.81 

.80 

.78 

•77 

•75 

•74 

•73 

•7« 

.70 

4.30 

.86 

.84 

.83 

.82 

.80 

•79 

•77 

.76 

•74 

•73 

•72 

4.40 

.88 

86 

.85 

•83 

.82 

.80 

•79 

.78 

•76 

•75 

•73 

4  50 

.90 

.88 

.87 

■85 

.84 

.82 

.81 

•79 

•79 

.76 

•7S 

4.60 

.92 

.90 

.89 

.87 

.86 

.84 

.83 

.81 

.80 

.78 

■77 

4.70 

•94 

.92 

.91 

.89 

.88 

.86 

.84 

•83 

.81 

.80 

.78 

4.80 

.96 

•94 

•93 

•91 

.90 

.88 

.86 

•85 

.83 

.81 

.80 

4.90 

.98 

.96 

•94 

•93 

•91 

.90 

.88 

.86 

•85 

•83 

.82 

S-oo 

1. 00 

.98 

.96 

•95 

•93 

.91 

.90 

.88 

.86 

.85 

.'l^ 

S^io 

1 .02 

1. 00 

•98 

.96 

•95 

•93 

.92 

.90 

.88 

.86 

•85 

5.20 

1.04 

1.02 

I.OD 

.98 

•97 

•95 

•93 

.92 

.90 

.88 

.87 

5-30 

1.06 

1.04 

I  02 

1. 00 

•99 

•97 

•95 

•93 

•92 

.90 

.88 

5  40 

1.08 

1.06 

1.04 

1.02 

1. 00 

•99 

•97 

•95 

•93 

•92 

.90 

5-50 

1. 10 

1.08 

1.06 

1.04 

1.02 

1. 00 

•99 

•97 

•95 

•93 

.92 

5.60 

1. 12 

1. 10 

1.08 

1.06 

1 .04 

1.02 

1. 00 

.98 

■97 

•95 

•93 

5-70 

1. 14 

1. 12 

I.  10 

1.08 

1.06 

1.04 

1.02 

1. 00 

.98 

•97 

95 

5.80 

1. 16 

1. 14 

I. 12 

1.09 

1.07 

1,05 

1.04 

1 .02 

1 .00 

.98 

■97 

5^9o 

1. 18 

1. 16 

I-I3 

I .  II 

1.09 

1.07 

I  05 

1.04 

1.02 

1. 00 

.93 

6.00 

1 .  20 

1. 18 

i^i5 

I-I3 

I. II 

1 .09 

1.07 

I  05 

1.03 

1  02 

I  .c«o 

CREAMERIES    AXD    CHEESK    FACTORIES.  345 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    MAKING    DIVIDENDS    IN 
CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES 

According  to  the  Per  Cent  of  Fat  in  Milk  Delivered. 

(S.  M.  Babcock,  in  "  Hoard's  Dairyman."") 

Find  the  amount  of  fat  contained  in  the  milk  of  each 
patron  for  any  period  desired,  by  multiplying  the  pounds 
of  milk  expressed  in  hundreds  by  the  per  cent  of  fat  found 
by  the  test.  Add  together  the  amount  of  fat  from  all  the 
patrons,  thus  obtaining  the  total  pounds  of  fat  delivered  at 
the  factory.  Deduct  the  expenses  of  manufacture,  etc., 
from  the  money  received  from  sales,  and  divide  the  re- 
mainder by  the  total  fat.  This  gives  the  price  to  be  paid 
for  each  pound  of  fat.  Multiply  the  pounds  of  fat  de- 
livered by  each  patron  by  the  price;  the  product  will  be 
the  amount  which  he  is  to  receive. 

If  it  is  desired  to  know^  the  number  of  pounds  of  butter 
made  from  each  patron's  milk,  divide  the  total  yield  of  but- 
ter by  the  total  fat  delivered;  the  quotient  will  be  the 
amount  of  butter  made  from  one  pound  of  fat.  The  fat 
delivered  by  each  patron  multiplied  by  this  figure  will  give 
the  pounds  of  butter  to  be  credited  to  each  patron. 

The  accompanying  table  gives  the  butter  yield  from  lOO 
lbs.  of  milk,  when  the  pounds  of  butter  from  one  pound  of 
fat  range  from  i.io  to  1.20,  and  for  milks  containing  from 
3  to  6  per  cent  of  fat.  To  use  the  table  find  in  the  upper 
horizontal  line  the  number  corresponding  most  nearly  to  the 
number  of  pounds  of  butter  from  one  pound  of  fat.  The 
vertical  column  in  which  this  falls  gives  the  pounds  of 
butter  from  100  pounds  of  milk  containing  the  per  cents  of 
fat  given  in  the  outside  columns. 

Example :  A  creamery  receives  during  one  month  250,000 
lbs.  of  milk,  which  contained  9531  lbs.  of  fat;  the  yield  of 
butter  for  the  same  period  was  10,983  lbs.,  which  sold  for 
29  cents  per  pound,  bringing  $3185.07.  The  expense  for 
making,  etc.,  was  four  cents  per  pound,  amounting  to 
$439.32,  leaving  $2745.75  to  be  divided  among  the  patrons. 
Dividing  this  sum  by  9531,  the  total  number  of  pounds  of 
fat  gives  28.8  cents  per  pound  for  the  fat.  This  multiplied 
by  the  number  of  pounds  of  fat  in  each  patron's  milk  gives 
the  amount  which  he  should  be  paid. 


346 


DAIRYING. 


The  number  of  pounds  of  butter,  10,983,  divided  b}^  Q53"; 
the  number  of  pounds  of  fat,  gives  1.152  pounds  of  butter 
from  each  pound  of  fat.  The  column  headed  1.15  in  the 
table  is  nearest  to  this  ratio,  and  will  therefore  give  the 
butter  obtained  from  100  lbs.  of  milk  containing  different 
per  cents  of  fat. 

If  a  patron  delivered  9420  lbs.  of  milk  containing  3.2  per 
cent  of  fat  during  the  period  considered,  his  milk  would 
have  contained  301.44  lbs.  Oi  .at,  which  at  2S.8  cents  per 
pound  would  have  amounted  to  $86. 81.  It  would  have 
made  301.44  X  1.152  =  347.26  lbs.  of  butter.  In  the  column 
headed  1.15  in  the  table,  opposite  3.2  per  cent  of  fat,  we 
find  3. 68,  which  is  the  number  of  pounds  of  fat  from  100 
lbs.  of  this  patron's  milk.  The  error  from  the  use  of  the 
table  in  this  way  will  never  amount  to  more  than  \  ounce 
per  100  lbs.  of  milk. 

Yield  of  Butter  from  Otir  lliiudred  Lbs.  of  Milk,  in  Lbs. 


c 

Lbs.  o''  Butter  per  Pound  of  Fat. 

i'    J 

0     4^ 

t.io 
3-30 

I. II 

1. 12 

1. 13 

1.14 

1-15 

1. 16 

1. 17 

1. 18 

1. 19 

1 .20 
3.60 

3.0 

3-33 

3 -.36 

3-39 

3-42 

3-45 

3-48 

3  51 

3-54 

3-57 

3-0 

3.1 

341 

3-441 

3.472 

3-503 

3-534 

3-565 

3-596 

3.627 

3.658 

3.680 

3.72 

3-' 

3-2 

3-52 

3-552 

3 -.584 

3.616 

3.648 

3  680 

3-712 

3  744 

;-776 

3  808 

3-84 

3-2 

3-3 

3-63 

3  663 

3.690 

3.729 

3.762 

3-795 

3  828 

3.861 

3.894 

3927 

3.96 

3  3 

3-4 

3-74 

3-774 

3. 80S 

3.842 

3.876 

3.9(0 

3  944 

3.978 

4.012 

4.046 

4.C8 

3-4 

3-5 

385 

3  885 

3.920 

3  955 

3.990 

4  025 

4.060 

4.005 

4   130 

4   '65 

4.20 

3-5 

3.6 

3-96 

3-996 

4.032 

4.0681   4   104] 

4.140 

4.176 

4.212 

4.248 

4.284 

4-32 

3-6 

3  7 

4.07 

4.107 

4.144 

4   181 

4.218 

4-255 

4.292 

4-329 

4.366 

4  •  403 

4-44 

3  7 

3  8 

4.18 

4.218 

4.256 

4.294 

4-332 

4-370 

4.40S 

4.446 

4-484 

4.52c 

1.50 

3-8 

'9 

4.29 

4.320 

4.^6S 

4  407 

4  4*6 

4.485 

4-524 

4  5^3 

4.602 

4.64T 

4.68 

3-9 

4  0 

4.40 

4.440 

4  480 

4.520 

4  560 

4.600 

4.640 

4.680 

4-720 

4.760 

4.80 

4.0 

4.1 

4-5' 

4-551 

4-592 

4-633 

4.674 

4-715 

4-756 

4-797 

4.838 

4.870 

4-9' 

4-1 

4-2 

4.62 

4 .  6l  '2 

4.704 

4.746 

4.788 

4-8^0 

4.872 

4.914 

4-956 

4  998 

5.04 

4.2 

4   ? 

4-73 

4  773 

4.816 

4-859 

4.902 

4-945 

4.988 

5.031 

5-074 

5. 117 

5.if^ 

4  3 

4  4 

4.84 

4.884 

4.928 

4.972 

5.016 

5.065 

5-104 

5.148 

5-192 

5-236 

5.28 

4-4 

4-5i4-95 

4-995 

5.040 

5-085 

5-130 

5-175 

5.220 

5-265 

5-310 

5-355|5-40 

4-5 
4.6 

4  '5 

5.06 

5.  too 

5-»5^ 

5.. 98 

5-244 

5.290 

5-336 

5.382 

5.428 

5-474,5-52 

4  7 

5-17 

5  217 

5  264 

5   311 

5-358 

5-405 

5-452 

5-499 

5-546 

5-593 

5-^4 

4  7 

4.8 

5.28 

5-328 

5-376 

5.424 

5-47-2 

5-5^o 

5-568 

5.616 

5.664 

5-71? 

5-76 

4  8 

4.9 

5-39 

5-439 

5  4^8 

5-537 

5-5^6 

5-635 

5.684 

5-733 

5-782 

5-831 

5.88 

4-9 

50 

5-50 

5- 550 

5.600 

5  650 

5.700 

5-750 

5  800 

5.850 

5  .  9oo|  5  950 

6.00 

5.0 

5.1 

5.61 

5 -661 

5-71'! 

5-703 

5  814 

5-865 

5.916 

0-^67 

6.018,6.060 

6.12 

5-1 

5.2 

5  72 

5-772 

6.824 

5-876 

5.928 

5-980 

6.C32 

6.084 

6  13616.188 

6.24 

5-2 

5-3 

5-83 

5.883 

5-93"^ 

5.986 

6.042 

6.095 

6.148 

6.201 

6.254I6.307 

6.36 

5  3 

5--1 

5-94 

5-994 

6  048 

6     I07 

6.T56 

6.210 

6  26j 

6  318 

6. 372  6.426 

6.48 

5  4 

5.5 

6.05 

6.105 

6.160 

6.215 

6  270 

6.325 

6.380 

6.435 

6.490,6.545 

6.60 

5-1 

5-6 

6.16 

6.216 

6  272 

6.323  6.384 

6.410 

6.4(^6 

6.5,52 

6.608 

0  664 

6.72 

5-6 

5   7 

16.27 

6.327 

6.384 

6.441    6  498 

7-551 

6  612 

6  66g 

6.72f= 

6.783 

6  84 

5-7 

5-3 

16  38 

6.438 

6  406 

6. t54    6  612 

6 .  070 

6  72S 

6.786 

6.844 

6.902 

6.9c 

5-8 

5  <5 

6.49 

6.549 

6.608 

6.667    6  7 if 

6.7S5 

6.84 

16.U0- 

6.96^ 

7.021 

7.08 

5-9 

6.0 

6  60 

6  660 

6.72: 

6.780    6.840 

6.go3 

6.96c 

)l7.02ol7. 08017. 14c 

7.20 

6.0 

CHEESE. 


347 


TABLE    SHOWING    AVEUAGE  PER  CENT  OF  FAT 
IN    3111jK.      (Partly  after  Martin  v.) 


4-> 

Sum  01 

c 
it 

u 

Sum  of 

c 

Sum  of 

c 

^  -^ 

ui 

(« 

ui 

a-fc 

[« 

en 

01 

d!.^ 

tn 

U5 

tn 

^t 

tn 

i/i 

C/I 

00 

to 

in 

^*-t 

w. 

(/) 

I/; 

U 

V 

U 

>  0 

w 

u 

<u 

^  0 

<u 

w 

di 

^'   Q 

H 

H 

H 

< 

H 

H 

H 

>  ^ 
< 

H 

H 

H 

>  ^ 
< 

m 

■>^ 

(^ 

ir> 

13.20 

9.90 

3.30 

in 
18.50 

■* 

m 

14.50 

11 .60 

8.70 

2  90 

16.50 

14.80 

11. 10 

3.70 

55 

64 

73 

91 

55 

24 

93 

31 

55 

84 

13 

71 

60 

68 

76 

92 

60 

28 

96 

32 

60 

88 

16 

72 

65 

72 

79 

93 

65 

32 

99 

33 

65 

92 

19 

73 

70 

76 

82 

94 

70 

36 

10.02 

34 

70 

96 

22 

74 

14  75 

11.80 

8.85 

2  95 

16.75 

13.40 

10.05 

3.35 

18.75 

15.00 

11.25 

3.75 

80 

84 

88 

96 

80 

44 

08 

36 

80 

04 

z8 

76 

85 

88 

91 

97 

85 

48 

11 

37 

85 

08 

3> 

77 

90 

92 

94 

98 

90 

52 

M 

38 

90 

12 

34 

78 

95 

96 

97 

99 

95 

56 

17 

39 

95 

16 

37 

74 

15.00 

12.00 

9.00 

3  00 

17.00 

13.60 

10.20 

3  40 

19.00 

15.20 

11.40 

3.80 

05 

04 

03 

01 

05 

64 

23 

41 

05 

24 

43 

81 

10 

08 

06 

02 

10 

68 

26 

42 

10 

28 

46 

82 

J5 

12 

09 

03 

15 

72 

29 

43 

15 

32 

49 

83 

20 

16 

12 

04 

20 

76 

32 

44 

20 

36 

52 

84 

15-25 

12.20 

9-15 

3.05 

17-25 

13.80 

10.35  3  45] 

19-25 

15.40 

II  55 

3.85 

30 

24 

18 

06 

30 

84 

38 

46 

30 

44 

58 

86 

35 

28 

21 

07 

35 

88 

41 

47 

35 

48 

61 

87 

40 

32 

24 

08 

40 

92 

44 

48 

40 

52 

64 

88 

45 

36 

27 

09 

45 

96 

47 

49 

45 

56 

67 

89 

15-50 

12.40 

9-30 

3.10 

17-50 

14.00 

10.50 

3.50 

19-50 

15.60 

11  70 

3.90 

55 

44 

33 

II 

55 

04 

53 

51 

55 

64 

73 

91 

60 

48 

36 

12 

60 

08 

56 

52 

60 

68 

76 

92 

65 

52 

39 

13 

65 

12 

59 

53 

65 

72 

79 

93 

70 

56 

42 

•4 

70 

16 

62 

54 

70 

76 

82 

94 

15-75 

12.  60 

9-45 

3  15 

17-75 

14.20 

ro.65 

3.55 

19-75 

15.80 

II. 8s 

3  95 

h 

64 

48 

16 

80 

24 

68 

56 

80 

84 

88 

96 

8^ 

68 

51 

17 

85 

28 

71 

57 

85 

88 

!^' 

97 

p 

72 

54 

18 

90 

32 

74 

58 

90 

02 

94 

98 

P5 

76 

57 

19 

95 

36 

77 

59 

95 

96 

97 

99 

ib.oo 

12.80 

9.60 

3.20 

18.00 

14.40 

10.80 

3.60 

20.00 

16.00 

12.00 

4.00 

05 

84 

63 

21 

05 

44 

83 

61 

05 

04 

03 

01 

10 

88 

66 

22 

10 

48 

86 

62 

10 

08 

06 

02 

15 

92 

69 

23 

15 

52 

89 

63 

15 

12 

09 

03 

20 

96 

72 

24 

1 

20 

56 

92 

64 

20 

16 

12 

04 

16.25 

13.00 

9-75 

3.25 

18.25 

14.60 

10.95 

3.65 

20.25 

16.20 

12.15 

4.05 

30 

04 

78 

26 

30 

641   98 

66 

30 

24 

18 

06 

35 

c8 

81 

27 

35 

68  II .01 

67 

35 

28 

21 

% 

40 

12 

84 

28 

40 

72 

04 

68 

40 

■52 

24 

45 

16 

s, 

=9| 

45 

76 

07 

69 

45 

36 

27 

09 

348 


DAIRYING. 


TABLE  SHOAVING  AVERAGE  PER  CENT  OF  FAT 

IN   lSLILtK.—{Contifniei/.) 


^ 

4-> 

Sum  of 

c 

Sum  of 

c 

Sum  of 

C 

U  ^ 

'u  .  \ 

d  ^ 

h  « 

^  rt 

h  ^ 

(/) 

c/> 

en 

i^Li. 

tn 

i/i 

«      ^U^ 

05 

(A 

u> 

^Ll. 

Oh* 

4J 

*j     Cu 

01 

<n 

tn 

M 

(A 

ID 

(fl          ^y„ 

in 

C/1 

(A 

(U 

W 

i> 

.  *  0 

U 

<J 

«        k!  0 

(U 

<u 

il 

...*  d 

H 

H 

H 

< 

4.10 

H 

h 

13.50  4.50 

h 

H 

h 

< 

ir, 

•<^ 

12.30 

m 

■4- 

>o 

•»»■ 

m 

20.50 

16.40 

22.50 

18.00 

24.50 

19.60 

14.70 

4.90 

55 

44         33 

11 

55 

04 

53         51 

55 

64'       73 

9' 

60 

48         36 

12 

60 

08 

56        52 

60 

68 

76 

92 

65 

52        39 

13 

65 

12 

59        53 

65 

72 

79 

93 

70 

56        42 

14 

70 

16 

62  j       54 

70 

76 

82 

94 

ao.75 

16.60  12.45 

4  15 

22.75 

18.20 

13  65  4.55 

24-75 

19.80 

14-85 

4.95 

80 

64        48 

16 

80 

24 

68        56 

80 

84 

88 

96 

85 

68 

51 

17 

85 

.28 

71        57 

85 

88 

91 

97 

90 

72 

54 

18 

90 

32 

74        58 

90 

92 

94 

98 

95 

76 

57 

10 

'1 

95 

36 

77        59 

95 

96 

97 

99 

21.00 

16.80  12.60 

4  20 

23.00 

18.40 

13.80  4.60 

25. CX) 

20.00 

15.00 

6  00 

05 

84'       63 

21 

05 

44 

83       61 

05 

04 

OS 

C)l 

10 

88        66 

22 

10 

48 

86        62 

ID 

08 

06 

02 

15 

92        69 

23 

15 

52 

89        63 

15 

12 

09 

03 

20 

96        72 

24 

20 

56 

92        64 

20 

16 

12 

M 

21.25 

17.00  12.75 

4.25 

23-'5 

18.60 

13.95  4.65 

25-25 

20.20 

15-^5 

5.O.*. 

30 

04        78 

26 

30 

64 

98       66 

30 

24 

18 

06 

35 

08        81 

27 

35 

68 

14.01        67 

35 

28 

21 

(.7 

40 

12 

84 

28 

40 

72 

04        68 

40 

32 

24 

c6 

45 

16 

87 

29 

45 

76 

07        69 

45 

36 

27 

09 

21.50 

17.20 

12.90 

4.30 

23.50 

18.80 

14.10  4.  70 

25-50 

20.40 

15-30 

5  10 

55 

24        93 

31 

55 

84 

13       71 

55 

44 

"  33 

1 1 

60 

28 

96 

321 

60 

88 

16       72 

60 

48 

36 

12 

65 

32 

99 

33 

65 

92 

19        73 

65 

52 

39 

'3 

70 

36 

13  02 

34 

70 

96 

22         74 

70 

56 

42 

14 

21-75 

17.40 

13-05 

4.35 

23-75 

19.00 

14.25  4.75 

25-75 

20.60 

15-45 

5  15 

80 

44 

08 

36 

80 

04 

28       76 

80 

64 

48 

16 

85 

48 

II 

37 

85 

08 

31         77 

85 

68 

51 

17 

90 

52 

M 

38 

90 

12 

34        78 

90 

72 

54 

18 

95 

56 

17 

39 

95 

16 

37 1       79 

95 

76 

57 

19 

22.00 

17.60 

13.20 

4.40 

24.00 

19.20 

14.40  4.80 

26.00 

20.80 

15.60 

6.20 

05 

64 

23 

41 

05 

24 

43        81 

05 

84 

63 

21 

10 

68 

26 

42 

10 

28 

46        82 

10 

88 

66 

22 

15 

72 

29 

43 

15 

32 

49        83 

15 

92 

69 

23 

20 

76 

32 

44 

20 

36 

52        84 

20 

96 

72 

24 

22.25 

17.80 

13-35 

4  45 

24.25 

19.40 

14.55  4.85 

26.25 

21.00 

1575 

5.25 

30 

84 

38 

46 

30 

44 

58       86 

30 

04 

78 

26 

35 

88 

41 

47 

35 

48 

61 

87 

35 

oS 

81 

27 

40 

92 

44 

48 

40 

52 

64 

88 

40 

12 

84 

28 

45 

96 

47 

49 

45 

56 

67 

89 

45 

16 

87 

29 

CREAMERIES  AND   CHEESE   FACTORIES.  349 


SUGGESTIONS    TO    PATRONS     OF     CHEESE    FAO 
TORIES     AND    CREAMERIES.      (Curtis.) 

Care  of  Milk. 

1.  All  milk  for  the  cheese  factory  must  be  clean,  pure, 
and  wholesome,  or  the  cheese  will  be  bad.  One  hundred 
PfMinds  of  bad  milk  will  injure  10,000  pounds  of  good  milk. 

2.  The  law  is  very  strict  against  watering  or  skimming. 
A  fine  of  $10.00  to  $100.00  is  imposed  if  convicted. 

3.  After  a  cow  has  dropped  her  calf,  the  milk  should  not 
be  taken  to  the  factory  until  the  tenth  milking. 

4.  Milk  run  through  an  aerator  as  soon  as  drawn  from 
the  cow,  in  open  air,  is  better  for  cheese  and  butter  making 
than  when  set  in  a  tub  of  water  and  dipped.  By  any  means 
at  your  command  thoroughly  air  the  milk  until  cooled. 

5.  Stagnant  water,  dead  carcasses,  or  filth  of  any  kind  in 
the  pasture  or  barn-yard  produces  tainted  milk.  For  this 
reason  set  the  can  of  night's  milk  in  a  clean  place. 

6.  Milk  with  clean  hands  ;  never  wet  them  with  milk;  it 
is  positively  filth)-. 

7.  See  that  the  cow's  udder  is  brushed  clean  and  free 
from  fine  dirt  and  dust  before  milking. 

8.  Never  mix  the  night's  and  morning's  milk.  It  will 
many  times  sour  them  both  by  pouring  the  warm  milk  into 
the  cold. 

g.  Small  cans  (10  to  15  gallons)  are  much  preferred  to 
larger  ones,  as  the  milk  is  kept  in  a  better  condition. 

10.  Whey  should  be  taken  home  in  separate  cans  from 
that  in  which  the  milk  is  brought  in. 

11.  If  whey  is  taken  home  in  the  milk-cans,  empty  at 
once,  w^ash  with  tepid  water,  then  scald  and  turn  them  out 
to  the  sun. 

12.  Insist  that  the  cheese-maker  keep  the  whey-vat  clean, 
by  washing  and  scalding  at  least  twice  a  week. 

13.  Insist  that  your  factory  shall  take  in  milk  by  the 
Babcock  test,  paying  each  patron  according  to  what  he  de^ 
livers. 

14.  Use  a  Babcock  test  yourself  and  know  just  what  you 
produce;  turn  off   the    poor   cows  and  fill  their  places  with 


good  ones.  Every  patron  should  know  for  himself  whether 
he  is  boarding  unprofitable  cows.  There  is  no  better  way 
of  knowing  this  than  by  the  use  of  the  Babcock  test  at  the 
barn.  The  cost  of  the  ;est  is  but  little,  but  its  instruction 
is  very  valuable. 

15.  It  should  always  be  remembered  that  pure  milk  can 
only  be  had  through  healthy  cows,  pure  feed,  pure  water, 
pure  air,  and  cleanly  handling.  Every  patron  is  affected 
in  the  cash  outcome  by  the  way  his  brother  patrons  pro- 
duce and  handle  their  milk,  hence  the  necessity  of  each 
adhering  to  sound  rules  based  on  sound  dairy  sense.  There 
is  not  a  first-class  factory  in  the  land  where  good  prices  are 
obtained  for  cheese  but  what  the  patrons  practise  thorough 
cleanliness  in  the  care  of  milk.  Remember,  it  is  a  matter 
of  profit  to  each  to  do  this. 

Care  of  Cows. 

Pay  special  attention  to  the  comfort  of  your  cows.  Do 
not  let  them  remain  out  in  cold  rain-stormiS  ;  it  will  reduce 
the  flow  of  milk.  Feed  liberally.  The  cow  must  at  all 
times  have  all  the  good  feed  she  can  eat  and  digest.  Be 
sure  and  provide  some  soiling-crop  against  the  July  and 
August  drought;  if  the  cow  shrinks  then  you  will  lose  money 
in  the  fall,  when  butter  and  cheese  are  high.  Oats  and 
peas,  sweet  corn  or  field  corn,  drilled  3I  feet  apart,  are  a 
good  soiling-crop. 

A  silo  is  a  great  help  in  the  economical  production  of 
cow  feed.  Thousands  of  successful  dairymen  have  proved 
this.      It  is  no  longer  an  experiment. 

Dairy  farming  at  high  profit  calls  for  close  study  con- 
cerning the  cow,  concerning  her  feed,  and  how  to  produce 
it  at  the  best  and  cheapest.  Every  dairy  neighborhood 
will  show  men  who  make  nearly  double  the  profit  from  the 
business  that  others  do.  We  believe  that  it  will  pay  every 
man  to  be  intelligent  and  as  well  posted  as  he  can  be  on  these 
important  questions.  Wc  must  bring  up  the  grade  of  our 
reputation  by  making  better  butter  and  cheese.  This  will 
bring  on  a  larger  and  better  paving  demand.      To  cheat  the 


CREAMERIES    AND    ClIEKSE    FACTORIES.  351 

consumer  with  poor  goods  will,  in  the  end,  destroy  the 
business.  Better  dairymen,  better  milk,  better  products, 
better  reputation  in  the  world's  markets,  will  surely  bring 
better  profits,  and  is  the  only  true  road  to  Dairy  Success. 

BY-LAWS   AND    RULES    FOR    CO-OPERATIVE 
CREAMERY   ASSOCIATIONS. 

I.  This  association  shall  be  known  as  the Co- 
operative Creamery  Association. 

II.  The  purpose  of  the  association  shall  be  to  locate, 
establish  and  carry  on  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  milk 
products,  in  such  a  manner  as  will  conduce  to  the  greatest 
convenience  and  profit  of  the  producers  over  the  greatest 

amount  of  territory  in  the  town  of and  vicinity.     Also 

to  purchase,  use,  and  hold  real  and  personal  estate  neces- 
sary for  the  transaction  of  the  business  of  the  association. 

III.  The  capital  stock  of  the  association  shall  be 

dollars,  divided  into shares  of  ten  dollars  each. 

IV.  This  association  shall  be  co-operative.  Cream  and 
milk  may  be  purchased  or  accepted  from  any  person  not  a 
stockholder  on  the  same  terms  and  conditions  as  may  be 
prescribed  for  stockholders. 

V.  Any  person  directly  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits 
may  become  a  member  of  this  association  by  taking  one  or 
more  shares  of  the  stock  of  the  association. 

VI.  I.   The  regular  meetings  of  the  association  shall  be 

held  semi-annually,  viz.,  on  the  first  Mondays  in and 

in  each  year,  at  such  time  and  place  as  the  board 

of  directors  may  determine;  and  notice  of  such  meeting 
shall  be  given  by  the  clerk  to  each  member  by  mail  seven 
days  at  least  previous  to  the  date  of  said  meeting.  2. 
Special  meetings  may  be  called  either  by  the  president, 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  a  majority  of  the  directors, 
or  upon  written  request  of  one  third  of  the  stockholders  of 
the  association,  upon  seven  days'  notice  as  above.  3. 
Meetings  of  the  board  of  directors  may  be  called  by  the 
president  or  by  any  two  directors. 

VII.  I.  The  oflficers  of  the  association  shall  consist  of  a 
president,  clerk,  treasurer,  five  directors,  and  two  auditors. 
2.   The  president  shall  be  chosen  annually  by  the  board  of 


352  DAIRYING. 

directors,  by  written  ballot,  at  the  regular  meeting  in 
October.  3.  The  clerk,  treasurer,  board  of  directors,  and 
auditors  shall  be  chosen  by  the  stockholders  annually,  by 
written  ballot,  at  the  regular  meeting  in  October,  and  all 
officers  shall  hold  office  till  others  are  chosen  and  qualified 
in  their  stead.  Vacancies  in  the  above-named  offices  may 
be  filled  at  any  meeting  of  the  stockholders  ;  in  the  mean- 
time by  the  board  of  directors.  In  case  of  the  absence  of 
the  clerk  a  temporary  clerk  may  be  chosen  and  qualified 
in  his  stead. 

VIII.  At  any  regularly  called  meeting  of  the  association, 
nine  of  the  members  thereof,  and  at  any  meeting  of  the 
board  of  directors,  three  members  thereof,  shall  constitute 
a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business.  A  less  number 
may  adjourn  from  time  to  time. 

IX.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  president,  who  shall  be  a 
director,  to  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  association  and  of 
the  board  of  directors,  preserve  order  therein,  put  all  ques- 
tions, announce  all  decisions,  and,  in  case  of  an  equal  divi- 
sion, to  give  the  casting  vote.  He  shall  receive  and  safely 
preserve  all  bonds  required  of  the  officers  of  the  associa- 
tion and  sign  all  certificates  or  documents  issued  by  the 
association  or  board  of  directors.  In  the  absence  of  the 
president,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  one  of  the  board  of  direc- 
tors, in  order  of  their  seniority,  to  preside  at  any  meeting. 

X.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  clerk  to  attend  all  meet- 
ings of  the  association  and  of  the  board  of  directors,  and 
to  keep  a  correct  record  of  the  same,  which  record  shall  be 
open  for  the  inspection  of  any  member.  He  shall  give 
notice  of  all  meetings  and  of  all  appointments  on  commit- 
tees, to  each  member  thereof,  and  to  each  officer  chosen,  of 
his  election;  and  shall  serve  all  such  other  notices  as  ap- 
pertain to  his  office  or  as  may  be  directed  from  time  to  time 
by  the  association  or  board  of  directors.  He  shall  attest 
all  certificates  or  documents  issued  signed  by  the  president, 
shall  file  all  bills  and  reports  and  such  other  documents  as 
may  be  ordered  to  be  filed,  and  shall  carry  on  all  such 
correspondence  as  may  be  directed  ;  shall  act  as  secretary 
of  all  committees  when  called  upon;    shall  keep  a  correct 


CREAMERIES    AND   CHEESE    FACTORIES.  353 

financial  account  between  the  association  and  its  members, 
and  shall  have  charge  of  all  property  not  otherwise  disposed 
of.  He  shall  give  such  bonds  for  the  faithful  performance 
of  his  duty,  and  receive  such  compensation  for  his  services, 
as  the  board  of  directors  may  determine. 

XI.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  treasurer  to  receive  all 
money  belonging  to  the  association,  giving  his  receipt 
therefor.  He  shall  draw  all  money  for  the  payment  of 
claims  against  the  association  under  the  direction  of  the 
board  of  directors.  He  shall  make  a  report  to  the  board  of 
directors  at  such  times  as  they  may  require.  He  shall  per- 
form all  duties  required  of  him  by  the  laws  of  the  common- 
wealth and  shall  give  such  bonds  for  the  faithful  perform- 
ance of  his  duty  as  the  board  of  directors  may  require. 

XII.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board  of  directors  to 
attend  to  the  general  affairs  of  the  association,  invest  the 
funds  of  the  same,  appoint  such  other  agents  and  officers 
as  in  their  judgment  the  interests  of  the  association  require, 
and  fix  all  compensations.  They  shall  keep  or  cause  to  be 
kept  a  correct  account  of  all  cream  or  milk  furnished  by 
the  stockholders  or  patrons,  and  a  correct  account  of  all 
sales.  They  shall  prescribe  the  rules  and  regulations 
governing  the  collection  and  delivery  of  the  cream  and 
milk;  may  cause  the  quality  of  the  same  to  be  tested  as 
often  as  may  be  deemed  expedient;  may  authorize  the  prem- 
ises of  any  stockholder  or  patron  to  be  inspected,  and 
may  reject  and  refuse  to  collect  or  receive  any  cream  or 
milk  that  is  unsatisfactory  or  not  furnished  in  compliance 
with  the  prescribed  regulations.  They  shall  establish 
prices  and  have  full  power  over  the  business  of  the  associa- 
tion, and  shall  in  all  cases  pursue  such  measures  as  in  their 
judgment  will  tend  to  the  best  interests  of  the  association. 
They  shall  make  a  full  report  of  their  doings,  and  a  full 
statement  of  the  business  at  each  regular  meeting,  or 
whenever  called  upon  to  do  so  by  vote  of  the  stockholders. 

XIII.  The  duties  of  the  auditors  shall  be  to  audit  all 
accounts  of  the  association,  making  a  report  to  the  board 
of  directors  at  the  time  of  the  regular  meetings,  and  at  such 
other  times  as  they  may  require. 


354  DATHVING. 

XIV.  The  net  profits  of  the  business  of  the  association, 
after  such  deductions  have  been  made  as  the  laws  of  the 
commonwealth  require,  shall  be  divided/;-^  rata  among  the 
stockholders,  according  to  the  number  of  shares  held  by 
each.  \^Ncte.—\\.  is  understood  that  the  profits  shall  not 
exceed  6  per  cent  on  capital,  all  receipts  in  excess  of  this 
sum  and  necessary  reserves  being  declared  in  payment  to 
patrons  for  cream  or  milk  furnished.] 

XV.  I.  Any  person  doing  business  for  the  association  or 
incurring  expense  therefor  shall  receive  a  just  remunera- 
tion for  such  services  or  expense.  2.  All  documents  issued 
by  the  association  shall  bear  the  seal  thereof,  said  seal  to 
be  in  charge  of  the  clerk.  3.  The  directors  shall  procure 
a  corporate  seal.  4.  No  member  of  the  association  can 
transfer  his  stock  to  any  person  not  directly  engaged  in 
agricultural  pursuits.  5.  In  case  shares  are  transferred  by 
or>e  person  to  another,  the  certificate  thereof  must  be  sur- 
rendered to  the  treasurer,  and  the  board  of  directors  shall 
cause  another  certificate  to  be  issued  to  the  person  to  whom 
the  transfer  is  made. 

XVI.  These  by-laws  shall  not  be  altered  or  amended  unless 
such  alteration  or  amendment  be  proposed  in  writing  one 
meeting  previous  to  action  being  taken  ;  provided  also  that 
two  thirds  of  the  members  vote  in  the  affirmative. 

BY-LAWS    A\D    RULES     FOR    CO-OPERATIVE 
CHEESE    FACTORIES. 

Article  i.  This  assoc  ation  shall  be  known  as  the  —  —  — 
Cheese  Factory  Association. 

Art.  2.  There  shall  be  two  meetings  held  yearly  at  the 
factory— one  in  the  spring  and  one  in  the  fall  or  winter,  to  be 
called  by  the  president. 

Art.  3.  At  the  first  meeting  in  each  year  there  shall  be 
chosen  by  the  patrons  a  president  and  a  trea'^urer  and  sales- 
man. 

Art.  4.   The  salesman  and  treasurer  shall  sell  all  the  cheese, 

and  as  so<^n  as  he  shall  have  sold  and  collected  for  one  nonth's 

'  make  of  cheese,  he  shall    afier  paying  the  proprietor  for  mak- 


CREAMKKi  IS    A?>rD    CHRESE    I  Ar'TOItlES.  355 

ing  and  deducting  the  other  expenses,  divide  the  proceeds  pro 
rata,  according  to  the  amount  of  butter-tat  delivered  by  each 
patron,  as  determined  by  the  Babcock  test. 

Art.  5.  It  shall  also  be  the  duty  of  the  treasurer  and  sales- 
man to  keep  the  books  of  the  association,  and  make  final  divi- 
dend yearly  to  all  the  patrons  whenever  all  the  cheese  is  sold 
and  paid  for.  He  shall  also  keep  a  milk  book,  showing  the 
number  and  amount  of  cheese  made  each  month,  to  be  taken 
from  the  factory's  books.  Said  treasurer's  milk  an  i  cheese 
books  shall  be  subject  to  the  inspection  of  the  patrons  and  tne 
president. 

Art.  6.  The  manager  shall  keep  an  accurate  account  with 
each  patron  of  the  number  of  pounds  of  milk  delivered  each 
day  and  make  and  record  daily  (every  week  or  month)  tests  of 
same  to  show  its  fat  content;  also  an  account  of  the  number  and 
amount  of  cheese  made,  which  accounts  shall  be  subject  to  the 
inspection  of  the  officers  and  patrons. 

Art.  7.  The  president  shall  be  authorized  to  preside  over 
the  entire  transactions  of  patrons  or  officers,  and  constitute  a 
committee  to  investigate  all  matters  pertaining  to  said  factory, 
and  if  any  contingency  should  arise,  he  shall  be  authorized  to 
bring  suit  in  law  against  any  delinquent. 

Art.  8.  The  manager  (cheese-maker)  shall  be  authorized  to 
criticise  all  milk  offered,  and  he  shall  reject  the  same  if  in  his 
judgment  said  milk  is  unfit  to  run  into  cheese;  also  to  deter- 
mine the  fat  content  of  any  milk,  and  if  found  to  be  below  the 
legal  standard  of  the  State,  shall  report  the  same  to  the  presi- 
dent, whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  send  out  a  committee  of  three  to 
the  premises  of  said  delinquent,  witnessing  the  transit  of  the 
milk  on  the  ensuing  day  from  the  cow  to  the  factory,  which 
shall  again  be  tested  as  on  the  previous  day,  and  if  found  to 
vary,  the  party  in  question  shall  be  adjudged  guilty  of  having 
diluted  or  adulterated  the  same,  as  shall  appear,  and  shall  forfeit 
and  pay  to  the  association  as  liquidated  damages  the  sum  of 
twenty  five  dollars  for  each  and  every  day  such  dilution  shall 
occur. 

Art.  9.  The  president  shall  also  have  power  to  call  special 
meetings  of  the  patrons  at  any  time  he  may  deem  it  necessary, 
and  he  shall  be  required  to  call  a  meeting  of  the  patrons  when 


35G  DAIRYING. 

ever  a  request  is  presented  to  him  signed  by  ten  patrons. 
Whenever  a  meeting  is  to  be  called,  the  president  shall  give 
patrons  at  least  two  days'  notice. 

Art.  id.  The  action  of  the  treasurer  and  salesman  in  regard 
to  selling  or  holding  cheese  shall  be  governed  by  a  vote  of  a 
majority  of  the  patrons.  If  no  vote  is  taken,  he  is  to  exercise 
his  best  judgment  in  the  matter. 

Art.  II.  In  voting  at  any  annual  or  special  meeting  of  this 
association  the  patrons  shall  be  allowed  one  vote  for  every  cow 
the  milk  of  which  is  brought  to  the  factory.  [This  may  be 
altered  to  one  vote  on  each  share  of  the  capital  stock  or  one 
vote  to  each  shareholder.] 

Art.  12.  The  treasurer  and  salesman  shall  attend  all  meet 
ings  of  the  association  whenever  possible,  and  shall  take  min 
utes  of  the  proceedings,  and  place  the  same  on  file  in  his  office, 
and  in  other  respects  act  as  secretary.  In  case  he  should  be 
absent,  a  temporary  secretary  may  be  chosen.  In  case  th» 
president  is  absent  at  any  meeting,  a  temporary  president  may 
be  chosen  for  a  presiding  officer. 

RULES   FOR   PATRONS   AND   INSTRUCTIONS   TO 
CREAM    OR   MILK   GATHERERS. 

These  rules  may  be  made  to  ?pply  to  either  whole-milk  or  gathered 
cream  creameries. 

Feeding. — We  insist  upon  only  such  food  being  fed  to  cow? 
as  will  produce  the  largest  and  best  quality  of  milk  or  cream. 
Turnips,  onions,  cabbage,  or  anything  likely  to  injure  the 
quality  of  milk,  cream,  or  butter  is  prohibited. 

Milking. — Cows  must  be  carefully  cleaned  before  milking, 
to  avoid  odors  that  taint  the  milk.  The  milk  must  be  strained 
through  two  strainers — one  of  them  cloth — before  going  into 
the  cans.  Thorough  cleanliness  must  be  observed  in  every- 
thing. 

Creamers  and  Cans. — Creamers  must  be  kept  in  a  place  free 
from  odors,  and  cleanliness  maintained  in  their  vicinity.  Tanks 
and  cans  must  be  kept  sweet  and  clean,  and  the  water  free  and 
clear.  Cans  must  be  washed^  then  scalded  every  time  they  are 
used.  The  water  in  the  creamers  should  not  go  below  45  de- 
crees in  summer  and  40  degrees  in  winter. 


CREAMERTES    AND    CHEESE    FACTORIES.  35? 

Settini^  Milk. — All  cans  must  be  filled  full  of  fresh  milk,  so 
far  as  possible,  and  immediately  placed  in  the  tank.  After  cans 
are  set  in  water  they  must  not  be  disturbed.  Patrons  are  not 
allowed  to  draw  off  the  milk  except  on  Sundays,  or  with  per- 
mission from  the  trustees. 

Mixing  Milk. — Cans  must  not  be  partly  filled  at  one  milking 
and  after  standing  long  enough  for  the  cream  to  begin  to  sepa- 
rate be  filled  with  milk  from  another  milking,  or  with  anything 
whatever.  After  a  can  has  once  been  set  it  must  not  in  any 
way  be  disturbed  or  meddled  with,  nor  the  milk  drawn  off  by 
the    patrons,   except  on   Sunday. 

Alght's  Milk. — When  milk  is  delivered  but  once  each  day, 
the  cans  containing  the  night's  milk  must  be  set  in  cold  water 
immediately  after  milking  and  the  milk  thoroughly  stirred  by 
using  a  dipper  and  pouring  until  the  milk  is  thoroughly  cooled. 
A  better  plan  is  to  use  a  cooler  to  thoroughly  cool  and  aerate 
the  milk  before  it  is  put  in  the  cans.  The  night's  milk  must  be 
left  setting  in  cold  water  until  it  is  hauled  to  the  creamery. 

Cream  and  Milk  Gatherers. — Cream  and  milk  gatherers  are 
forbidden  to  take  any  cream  or  milk  which  is  dirty,  or  for  any 
reason,  in  their  judgment,  is  not  of  satisfactory  quality  or  con- 
dition, or  which  has  been  in  any  way  so  treated  as  to  indicate 
that  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  interfere  with  the  proper  and 
natural  separation  of  the  cream,  or  of  its  being  correctly  counted 
on  the  gauge,  or  in  violation  of  these  rules. 

Any  patron  found  neglecting  or  violating  any  of  these  rules 
must  at  once  be  reported  to  some  one  of  the  board  of  trustees 
or  directors,  and  his  cream  or  milk  must  not  again  be  taken  till 
he  has  satisfied  the  trustees  that  his  neglect  was,  for  good  rea- 
sons, excusable  ;  and  if  any  patron  shall  more  than  once  be  so 
reported  it  shall  be  deemed  a  sufficient  reason  for  refusal  to 
again  receive  his  cream  at  all. 

Cream  or  milk  gatherers  are  especially  directed  to  take  all 
possible  pains  to  discover  all  violations  or  neglect  of  any  of 
these  rules,  and  strictly  enforce  them  in  every  case. 

These  rules  and  instructions  are  found  by  experience  and 
observation  to  be  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  association 
and  the  best  good  of  all  its  members.  Copies  thereof  will  be 
securely  posted  conveniently  near  each  tank  where  milk-cans 
are  set,  so  that  ignorance  can  be  no  excuse  for  neglect. 


358  DAIRYING. 

Patrons  are  requested  to  noiify  tiie  board  of  trustees  or  direc- 
tors if  any  cream  or  milk  gatherer  is  in  any  way  delinquent  or 
careless  in  bis  observance  of  these  insLruclions. 

Patrons  who  are  not  disposed  to  be  governed  by  these  irdcs 
are  requested  to  so  advise  the  trustees  or  directors,  and  the 
treasurer  will  make  prompt  settlement  with  any  who  wish  to 
withdraw. 

By  order  of  the  trustees  or  directors. 

,......., ,..,.,„  o  .. .  President 

.,o, .<,.., ........ .00.0...  Treas. 


PART  III.    GENERAL  TOPICS. 


I.    CONSriTUlIONS    OF    AGRICULTURAL 
ASSOCIATIONS. 

CONSTITUTION  AND  BY  LAWS  OF  AGRICULTURALi 

CL.LBS. 

Toi^enjor  AVidi  Rules  of  Order,  aiul  Order  of  Business. 

(McKkki-ow.) 

Const  itutioii. 

Preamble.— We,  the  undersiu^ned,  interested  in  agricul- 
ture and  horticulture,  and  desirous  to  secure  the  benefits  to 
be  derived  from  organization,  for  the  purpose  of  practical 
discussion  and  the  promotion  of  the  common  interests 
of  our  pursuits,  do  subscribe  the  following  Constitution: 

Article  I.  iVanie. — This  association  shall  be  styled  and 
known  as  the  Agricultural  Club. 

Article  II.  Objects. — The  objects  of  this  club  are  to  ad- 
vance the  knowledge  and  promote  the  general  interests  of 
agriculture  and  horticulture  in  this  community. 

Article  III.  Officers.  —  The  officers  shall  consist  of  a 
president,  vice-president,  recording  secretary,  correspond' 
ing  secretary,  treasurer,  and  librarian. 

Article  IV.  Duties  of  Ojficers. — Section  i.  It  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  president  to  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the 
club;  to  enforce  a  due  observance  of  the  Constitution,  By- 
laws, and  Rules  of  Order;  to  assign  topics  of  discussion  a> 
the  suggestion  of  members.  He  shall  neither  make  noi 
second  anv  motion,  but  shall  have  the  privilege  of  taking 
part  in  debate;  and  while  he  has  the  floor  the  meeting  fof 
liie  lime  being  shall  be  in  charge  of  the  vice-president; 
but  the  presi''ent  shall  have  no  vote  unless  the  club  shall 
l»e  equally  div  ided. 

Section  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  vice-president  to 
preside  at  all  times  when  the  president  is  absent,  and  while 
he  sliall  have  tem [u^rarily  vacated  the  chair. 


3G0  GENERAL  TOPICS. 

Section  3.  The  recording  secretary  shall  keep  a  record 
of  the  proceedings  of  the  club;  also  the  name  of  each 
member,  and  shall  on  the  regular  last  meeting  of  each  year 
prepare  and  read  the  names  of  all  members;  and  he  shall 
have  charge  of  the  archives  of  the  club. 

Section  4.  The  corresponding  secretary  shall  conduct 
the  correspondence  of  the  club  and  act  as  recording  secre- 
tary in  the  absence  of  that  officer.  He  shall  also  render 
such  assistance  to  the  recording  secretary  as  that  officer 
may  require  in  the  performance  of  his  duties. 

Section  5.  The  treasurer  shall  keep  all  money  belong- 
ing to  the  club,  and  disburse  the  same  under  the  direction 
of  the  club,  according  to  its  laws.  He  shall  collect  all  fees 
and  dues  of  members,  and  shall  at  some  time  during  the 
month  of  December  of  each  year  notify  such  as  are  in 
arrears  and  request  their  dues.  He  shall  keep  a  correct 
account  of  all  moneys  received  and  expended. 

Section  6.  The  librarian  shall  have  charge  of  the  li- 
brary and  its  appurtenances,  regulating  the  use  of  the  same 
by  the  members,  according  to  the  rules  and  regulations 
prescribed.  He  shall  make  a  written  report  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  library  at  the  annual  meeting,  and  at  such 
other  times  as  the  club  may  direct.  He  shall,  within  one 
week,  deliver  to  his  successor  in  office  the  library  and  its 
appurtenances,  and  all  books,  papers,  and  documents  in 
his  possession  belonging  to  the  club. 

Article  V.  Elections. — All  elections  for  officers  shall  be 
by  ballot,  and  shall  be  held  at  the  first  regular  meeting  in 
January  of  each  year;  and  their  terms  shall  commence  im- 
mediately after  their  election,  to  continue  for  one  year,  or 
until  others  are  elected  to  fill  their  places.  In  the  case  of 
vacancy  occurring  in  any  office  the  club  shall  go  imme- 
diately into  an  election  to  fill  the  same.  A  majority  of  all 
the  votes  cast  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 

Article  VI.  Membership. — Section  i.  Any  person  inter- 
ested in  agriculture  or  horticulture,  and  of  good  moral 
standing,  may  become  a  member  of  this  club  by  signing 
this  Constitution,  agreeing  to  support  all  laws  and  regula- 
tions made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  paying  fifty  cents 
annually  into  the  treasury. 

Sei  riv)n    2-    Honorary   membership   mav  be   conferred   in 


CONSTITUTIONS  OF  AGRICULTUIiAL    ASSOCIATIONS.  3G1 

consideration  of  eminent   character   and   services  in  honor 
of  agriculture  or  horticulture  and  shall  be  conferred  with-, 
out  fee   or  dues.     The   recipient  shall   not  be  entitled    to 
hold   office,  but  may  take   part  in  all  discussions  and  vote 
on  all  questions. 

Article  VII.  Amendments. — No  alteration,  amendment, 
or  addition  can  be  made  to  this  Constitution,  neither  can 
any  part  of  it  be  repealed,  without  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of 
the  members  present.  Any  proposed  alteration,  amend- 
ment, addition,  or  repeal  must  be  submitted  in  writing, 
filed  with  the  recording  secretary,  and  read  at  two  regu- 
lar meetings  next  preceding  that  on  which  the  vote  is  taken. 

By-laws. 

Article  I.  This   club  shall  assemble  weekly  (or  twice  a 

month)    on evenings    from   November    ist    to    April 

1st,  and  at  such  intervals  thereafter  as  may  be  agreed 
upon  by  the  club,  or  appointed  by  the  president.  The 
time  and  place  of  meeting  may  be  altered  at  any  regular 
meeting  of  the  club  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  all  of  the 
members  present. 

Article  II.  Section  i.  Seven  members  shall  constitute 
a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business  of  the  club.  A 
less  number  may  meet,  maintain  a  discussion  on  any  topic, 
and  adjourn  to  any  given  time. 

Section  2.  Persons  present,  not  members  of  the  club, 
may  be  invited  to  take  part  in  ail  discussions  of  agricul. 
tural  topics;  but  they  shall  take  no  part  in  the  business  of 
the  club. 

Article  III.  Section  i.  If  the  funds  of  the  club  should 
at  any  time  be  exhausted,  or  inadequate  to  meet  the  de- 
mands contemplated  by  the  Constitution,  there  shall  be  an 
equal  assessment  upon  each  member  to  make  up  the  de- 
ficiency. 

Section  2.  No  appropriation  of  money  from  the  funds 
of  the  club  shall  be  lawful,  except  in  furtherance  of  the 
objects  contemplated  by  the  Constitution,  as  stated  in  ar- 
ticle 2,  or  as  especially  provided  by  these  By-laws. 

Article  IV.   Section   i.   There  shall  be   a  library  estab- 


3G2  GEN F HAL   TOPICS. 

lished  for  the  use  of  the  club  in  furtherance  of  the  objects 
contemplated  in  article  2  of  the  Constitution. 

Section  2.  The  library  shall  be  open  to  the  free  use  of 
the  members  of  the  club,  who  shall  not  be  more  than  three 
months  indebted  to  the  treasury,  subject  to  the  prescribed 
rules  and  re'^ulations. 

Section  3.  The  library  shall  be  maintained  by  the  sur- 
plus fund,  after  defrayint?  the  expenses  of  the  club,  and 
by  the  voluntary  contributions  and  donations  of  the  mem- 
bers, to  be  duly  accredited  to  each   contributor  and   donor. 

Section  4.  The  library  shall  be  in  charpe  of  the  li- 
brarian, as  provided  in  article  4.  secl"on  6,  of  the  Consti- 
tution. There  shall  be  a  stanr  n^  I  'irary  committee  of 
three  members  apno'nted  ;^t  e'arh  unmnl  meet  nsr,  otwhom 
the  librarian  shaii  be  one,  and  ex-o/jicio  cnairman,  which 
shall  have  chartre  of  the  purchase  and  collection  of  books, 
papers,  and  pamphlets  for  the  ..  orary,  and  perform  such 
other  duties  as  may  be  ordained. 

Section  5.  Rules. — Rule  i.  No  member  shall  have  from 
the  library  more  than  one  (two)  book(s)  at  a  time. 

Rule  2.  No  volume  shall  be  retained  longer  than  two 
weeks,  under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  ten  cents  for  the  first 
w^.ek  of  detention,  and  five  cents  for  every  week  thereafter. 

Rule  3.  There  shall  be  assessed  for  injuries  as  follows: 
ist.  For  an  injury  beyond  ordinary  wear,  an  amount  pro- 
portionate to  the  injury,  ascertained  by  the  librarian.  2d. 
For  the  loss  of  the  volume,  the  cost  of  the  book;  and  if  one 
of  a  set,  an  amount  sufficient  to  replace  it,  or  purchase  a 
new  volume. 

Rule  4.  No  person  having  incurred  a  fine  shall  be  per- 
mitted to  take  books  from  the  library  until  the  fine  is  paid. 

Article  V.  A  vote  of  two  thirds  of  all  the  members 
present  shall  be  required  to  pass  any  appropriation  of 
money  by  the  club,  other  than  for  its  necessary  contingent 
expenses. 

Article  VI.  Section  i.  Any  member  who  shall  suffer 
his  account  with  the  treasurer  to  go  unsettled  for  more 
than  one  year  shall  cease  to  be  considered  as  belonging  to 
the  club,  and  his  name  shall  be  stricken  from  the  roll  ac- 
cord in.;  1  /. 


♦■"ON'STITUTIONS  OF  AGRICULTURAL   ASSOCIATIONS.    3G3 

Section  2.  Any  member  who  shall  be  guilty  of  any  gross 
violation  of  the  rules  of  order,  or  of  profane  or  indecent 
language  or  conduct,  at  any  of  the  meetings  of  the  club 
shall  be  fined,  reprimanded,  or  expelled,  as  the  club  may, 
by  a  two  thirds  vote,  decide. 

Section  3.  Any  member  who  shall  become  guilty  of  any 
heinous  offence  or  disgraceful  practice,  such  as  to  render 
him  an  unfit  associate,  shall,  on  conviction  thereof,  be  ex- 
pelled from  the  club. 

Article  VII.  These  By-laws  may  be  amended  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  Constitution. 

Standing    Resolutions. 

Resolved,  That  after  this  date  the  weekly  meetings  of 
this  club  shall  be  held  on  ,  at  ,  or  at  the  resi- 
dences of  the  members  of  the  club,  at o'clock. 

Resolved,  That  there  shall  be  an  Executive  Committee, 
consisting  of  the  president,  recording  secretary,  and  treas- 
urer, having  power  to  transact  the  necessary  business 
of  the  club,  during  the  term  when  the  meetings  are  not 
I  eld. 

Rules   of    Order. 

1.  No  question  shall  be  stated  unless  moved  by  two 
laembers,  nor  open  for  discussion  until  stated  by  the  presi- 
dent. 

2.  When  a  member  intends  to  speak  on  a  question,  he 
shall  rise  in  his  place  and  respectfully  address  his  remarks 
to  the  chair,  confine  his  remarks  to  the  (luestion,  and  avoid 
personalities.  Should  more  than  one  person  rise  at  a 
iime,  the  president  shall  determine  who  is  entitled  to  the 
floor. 

3.  When  a  member  is  called  to  order  by  the  president, 
or  any  other  member  he  shall  at  once  take  his  seat,  and 
every  point  of  order  shall  be  decided  by  the  president, 
without  debate,  subject  to  an  appeal  to  the  club, 

4.  In  case  of  an  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  chair 
the  question  shall  be  put  to  the  club  thus:  "  Shall  the  de- 
cision of  the  chair  be  sustained'"  which  shall  be  decided 
without  debate. 


364  GE.NEUAL    lUi'iCiS. 

5.  No  member  shall  interrupt  another  while  he  is  speak- 
ing,  except  to  call  to  order. 

6.  An}'  member  may  call  for  a  division  of  the  question, 
when  the  sense  will  admit  of  it. 

7.  When  any  three  members  call  for  the  yeas  and  nays, 
they  shall  be  taken  and  recorded  on  the  minutes. 

8.  All  resolutions  shall,  when  required  by  the  president 
or  any  member,  be  submitted  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the 
member  offering  the  same. 

9.  Cushing's  "  Manual  of  Parliamentary  Practice  '  shall 
be  adopted  as  authority  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  parlia- 
mentary order  in  the  club. 

10.  These  Rules  may  be  amended  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  Constitution  and  By-laws. 

Order  of  Business. 

1.  Calling  the  roll  of  officers  and  necessary  filling  of 
vacancies. 

2.  Reading  of  minutes  of  last  meeting. 

3.  Reports  of  committees. 

4.  Unfinished  business. 

5.  New  business. 

6.  Reception  of  new  members. 

7.  Has  any  member  any  question  to  ask  for  information 
in  regard  to  his  farm,  stock,  etc.? 

8.  Reading  of  communications  and  essays. 

9.  Discussion  of  regular  topic. 

10.  Assignment  of  subject  for  next  discussion. 

,       CONSTITUTION  OF  VILLAGE-IMPROA  E31ENT 

SOCIETIES. 

Article  r.  This  society  shall  be  called  the  Im.- 

provement  Society. 

Art.  2.  The  object  of  this  society  shall  be  to  improve 
and  ornament  the  streets  and  public  grounds  of  the  village 
by  planting  and  cultivating  trees,  establishing  and  protect- 
ing grass-plats  and  borders  in  the  avenues,  and  generally 
doing  whatever  may  tend  to  the  improvement  of  the  village 
as  a  place  of  residence. 


CONSTITUTIONS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCIATIONS.   365 

Art.  3.  The  business  of  the  society  shall  be  conducted 
by  a  board  of  nine  directors,  five  gentlemen  and  four 
ladies,  to  be  elected  annually  by  the  society,  who  shall 
constitute  the  board.  This  board  shall,  from  its  own 
number,  elect  one  president,  two  vice-presidents,  a  secre- 
tary, and  treasurer,  and  shall  appoint  such  committees  as 
they  may  deem  advisable  to  further  the  ends  of  the  society. 

Art.  4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  president,  and,  in  his 
absencf ,  of  the  senior  vice-president,  to  preside  at  all  meet- 
ings of  the  society,  and  to  carry  out  all  orders  of  the  board 
of  directors. 

Art,  5.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  secretary  to  keep  a 
correct  and  careful  record  of  all  proceedings  of  the  society 
and  of  the  board  of  directors  in  a  book  suitable  for  their 
preservation,  and  such  other  duties  as  ordinarily  pertain 
to  the  office. 

Art.  6.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  treasurer  to  keep  the 
funds  of  the  society,  and  to  make  such  disbursements  as 
may  be  ordered  by  the  board  of  directors. 

Art.  7.  No  debt  shall  be  contracted  by  the  board  of 
directors  beyond  the  amount  of  available  funds  within 
their  control  to  pay  it,  and  no  member  of  this  society  shall 
be  liable  for  any  debt  of  the  society  beyond  the  amount  of 
his  or  her  subscription. 

Art.  8.  Any  adult  person  may  become  a  member  of  this 
society  by  paying  two  dollars  ($2.00)  annually.  Any  per- 
son not  of  age  who  shall  plant  and  protect  a  tree,  under 
the  direction  of  the  board  of  directors,  or  shall  pay  the 
sum  of  fi.oo  annually,  may  become  a  member  of  this 
society  until  of  age,  after  which  time  the  annual  dues 
shall  be  increased  to  two  dollars  ($2.00),  the  same  as  other 
adults. 

Art.  9.  The  annual  meeting  of  the  society  shall  be  held 
during  the  first  week  in  October  at  such  place  as  the  board 
of  directors  may  select,  and  a  notice  of  such  meeting  shall 
be  posted  iaprominent  places  through  the  village.  Other 
meetings  of  the  society  may  be  called  by  the  board  of 
directors  when  desirable. 

Art.    10.   At  the  annual   mtctini'    »l;e   board  of  directors 


366  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

shall  report  the  amount  of  money  received  during  the  year 
and  the  source  from  which  it  has  been  received;  the-amount 
of  money  expended  during  the  year,  and  the  objects  for 
which  it  has  been  expended;  the  number  of  trees  planted 
at  the  cost  of  the  society,  and  the  number  planted  by  indi- 
viduals; and,  generally,  all  acts  of  the  board  that  may  be 
of  interest  to  the  society.  This  report  shall  be  entered 
on  the  record  of  the  society. 

Art.  II.  This  constitution  may  be  amended  wMth  the 
approval  of  two  thirds  of  the  members  present  at  any 
annual  meeting  of  the  society,  or  at  any  special  meeting 
called  for  that  purpose,  a  month's  notice  of  the  proposed 
amendment,  with  its  object,  having  been  given. 

CONSTITUTION   OF    ROAD  LEAGUES. 

Article  i.  This  organization  shall  be  known  as  tho 
Road  League  of  County,  (State). 


Art.  2.  Its  object  shall  be  the  improvement  of  public 
roads  in  and  vicinity. 

Art.  3.  Any  person  may  become  a  member  on  payment 
of  one  dollar  per  annum,  and  shall  be  entitled  to  vote  at 
annual  meetings. 

Art.  4.  The  annual  meeting  shall  be  held  in  Novembei 
on  Mondays  on  or  preceding  the  full  moon. 

Art.  5.  The  business  of  the  Road  League  shall  ba 
intrusted  to  a  council  of  twelve,  who  shall  be  chosen  by 
ballot  at  the  annual  meetings,  and  they  shall  hold  office 
until  their  successors  are  elected. 

By-hnvs. 

Art.  I.  The  council  of  twelve  shnll  convene  as  soon  as 
possible  after  the  election,  and  shall  choose  from  their 
number  a  president,  also  a  secretary  and  treasurer  (who 
may  be  one  and  the  same  person),  and  the  council  shall 
hold  meetings  monthly  at  the  call  of  the  secretary. 

Art.  2.  The  president  shall  preside  at  all  meetings,  and 
when  absent  a  member  present  shall  be  called  to  the  chair 
in  the  usual  way. 


CONSTITUTIONS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCIATIONS.    367 

Art.  3.  The  secretary  shall  keep  a  record  of  the  proceed- 
ings of  *all  meetings  and  conduct  the  correspondence  of  the 
league. 

Art.  4.  The  treasurer  shall  keep  an  accurate  account  of 
receipts  and  disbursements  in  a  book  for  that  purpose,  and 
all  disbursements  shall  be  authorized  or  approved  by  the 
council. 

Art.  5.  Meetings  of  the  council  may  be  called  by  order 
of  the  president,  or  at  the  request  of  three  of  its  members, 
and  five  shall  constitute  a  quorum. 

Art.  6.  The  president  shall  appoint  a  monthly  committee 
of  two  m^embers  of  the  council,  who  shall  give  special 
supervision  to  the  work  of  the  overseer  in  charge  of  the 
roads  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  league,  and  serve  until 
their  successors  are  appointed. 

Art.  7.  The  council  shall  fill  all  vacancies  occurring  by 
resignation  or  otherwise,  and  they  may  drop  from  their 
number  any  member  who  shall  persistently  neglect  his 
duty,  or  manifest  indifference  by  non-attendance  of  the 
monthly  meetings. 

Art.  S.  The  constitution  and  by-laws  of  this  league  may 
be  changed  by  a  two  thirds  vote  of  the  entire  council, 
notice  of  such  change  having  been  given  in  writing  at  a. 
preceding  meeting. 

The  order  of  business  of  the  council  shall  be  as  follows. 
I.  Roll-call.  2.  Reading  of  minutes  of  previous  meeting. 
3.  Report  of  treasurer.  4.  Unfinished  business.  5.  New 
business.  6.  Reports  of  committees  and  of  the  overseers. 
7.   Adjournment. 


367a  GENERAL    TOPICS. 

CO-OPERATIVE   BREEDERS'   ASSOCIATION. 

By-Laws  Governing  Co-operative  Breeders'  Association. 

(i)  It  shall  be  the  purpose  of  this  association  to  procure  and 
use  pedigreed  sires  for  the  purpose  of  improving  our  live  stock 
through  a  system  of  up-grading.  This  method  of  improvement 
implies  the  continued  use  of  some  one  kind  of  pure  blood  on  the 
grade  and  mixed  bred  stocks.  The  association  opposes  the  ad- 
mixture of  the  blood  of  several  breeds  and  the  use  of  cross-bred 
grade  and  scrub  sires.  The  association  also  pledges  itself  to 
exert  every  possible  influence  for  the  improvement  and  further- 
ance of  the  live  stock  interests  of  the  community. 

(2)  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  officers  of  this  association  to 
purchase  the  necessary  sires  and  negotiate  with  competent  parties 
within  the  association,  centrally  located,  to  care  for  and  handle 
the  bulls  at  a  sum  not  to  exceed  —  per  annum. 

(3)  All  bulls  must  be  purchased  subject  to  the  tuberculin  test 
as  a  safeguard  against  the  introduction  of  tuberculosis. 

(4)  No  bulls  or  other  breeding  animal^  shall  be  purchased  from 
any  herd  in  which  three  or  more  cases  of  aborlion  have  occurred 
during  the  past  three  years.  (This  will  make  reasonable  allow- 
ance for  accidental  abortion  and  act  as  a  safegua-d  against  tiie 
ravages  of  contagious  abortion.) 

(5)  Should  any  contagious  or  infectious  disease  appear  in  the 
herd  of  any  member  of  this  association  he  must  forfeit  the  right 
to  patronize  males  of  the  association  until  such  time  as  his  herd 
is  declared  free  from  disease  by  a  competent  veterinarian. 

(6)  A  service  fee  of  $1.00  shall  be  charged  members  of  the 
association,  to  be  collected  at  lime  of  service.  A  charge  of  $2 
will  be  made  to  non-members  in  case  the  association  should 
decide  to  accept  the  patronage  of  the  same.  Refund  of  service 
fee  is  to  be  made  in  the  case  of  animals  proving  to  be  non-breeders. 

(7)  Service  fees  shall  be  used  to  defray  cost  of  maintenance 
and  handling  of  sires.  Any  surplus  accumulations  from  this 
source  may  be  divided  among  stockholders  as  dividends. 

(8)  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  officers  of  this  association  to 
require  and  see  to  it  that  each  sire  is  kept  in  a  strong,  vigorous, 


CONSTITUTIONS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCIATIONS.    3676 

healthy  condition,  in  moderate  flesh,  with  plentiful  supplies  of 
suitable  food  and  sufficient  yardage  to  afford  exercise  in  the 
open  air  and  sunshine,  in  addition  to  the  protection  of  the  stable, 
(g)  Bulls  shall  not  be  used  for  service  under  one  year  of  age, 
nor  shall  heifers  be  bred  to  calve  under  twenty-four  months  of 
age.  During  the  rush  of  the  breeding  season  single  services 
only  will  be  allowed. 

DAIKY   TEST  ASSOCIATIONS. 

1.  The  organization  shall  be  known  as  the District  Dairy 

Test  Association. 

2.  The  officers  shall  consist  of  a  president,  a  vice-president, 
and  a  secretary  and  treasurer.  Three  other  members  shall  be 
appointed  to  act  along  with  the  officers  as  a  committee  of  manage- 
ment. 

3.  The  officers  shall  be  elected  to  hold  office  for  one  year  or 
until  their  successors  are  elected. 

4.  The  annual  meeting  shall  be  held  at  the  call  of  the  president. 

5.  Meetings  of  the  committee  of  management  shall  be  held  at 
the  call  of  the  secretary-treasurer.  Three  members  shall  form  a 
quorum. 

By-Laws 

1.  Any  person  who  will  agree  to  keep  a  record  of  individual 
cows  during  the  whole  milking  period,  to  the  extent  of  weighing 
the  morning's  and  evening's  milk  on  at  least  three  days  every 
month  and  also  take  a  sample  for  testing,  will  be  admitted 
to  membership.  The  number  of  members  may  be  limited  at 
the  discretion  of  the  committee  of  management. 

2.  The  milk  will  be  preserved  and  a  composite  sample  tested 
once  a  month  with  a  Babcock  milk-tester. 

3.  Members  will  be  expected  to  provide  themselves  with  a 
dipper,  scales  and  sample  bottles  for  each  cow  and  a  box  for 
holding  the  samples. 

4.  Members  shall  assume  the  responsibilitv  of  delivering  the 
samples  to  the  place  where  the  testing  is  to  be  done,  on  such  days 
as  may  be  directed  by  the  person  in  charge  of  the  work. 


308 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


II.  MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS  AND 
TABLES. 

E:S  PLANATION  OF  THE  FFjAG  SIGNALS  ADOPTED 
BY  THE  UNITED  STATES   WEATHER  BUREAU. 

The  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  furnishes,  when  practicable, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  general  public  and  those  interests  de- 
pendent to  a  greater  or  less  extent  upon  weather  condi- 
tions, the  "  Forecasts  "  which  are  prepared  daily,  at 
lO  A.M.  and  lo  p.m.,  for  the  following  day.  These  weather 
forecasts  are  telegraphed  to  observers  at  stations  of  the 
Weather  Bureau,  railway  officials,  and  many  others, 
and  are  so  worded  as  to  be  readily  communicated  to  the 
public  by  means  of  flags  or  steam  whistles.  The  flags 
adopted  for  this  purpose  are  five  in  number,  and  of  the 
form  and  dimensions  indicated  below: 


Weather  Flags. 


No.  3. 
No.    I.  No.  2.  White  and  Blue 

White  Flag.       Blue  Flag.  Flag. 


No  4.  No.  <;. 

Black   Tri-   White   Flag 
angular        with  black 
Flag.      square  in  centre. 


Clear  or  fair     Rain  or  snow.    Local  rains 
weather.  or  snow 


^ 


Temperature 

signal. 


Cold  wave. 


Interpretation  of  Displays. 

No.  I,  alone  :  fair  weather,  stationary  temperature. 
No.  2,  alone  :  rain  or  snow,  stationary  temperature. 
No.  3,  alone  :   local  rain  or  snow,  stationary  temperature. 
No.  I,  with  No.  4  above  it  :  fair  weather,  warmer. 
No.  I,  with  No.  4  below  it :  fair  weather,  colder. 


MISCELLANEOUS    SUBJECTS   AXD   TABLES.        369 

No.  2,  with  No.  4  above  it:  warmer  weather,  rain  or  snow 

No.  2,  with  No.  4  below  it  :  colder  weather,  rain  or  siiow. 

No.  3,  with  No.  4  above  it :  warmer  weather,  with  local  rains 
or  snow. 

No.  3,  with  No.  4  below  it :  colder  weather,  with  local  rains  or 
snow. 

Explanation   of  Whistle  Signals. 

A  warning  blast  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  seconds'  duration  is 
sounded  to  attract  attention.  After  this  warning  the  longer  blasts 
(of  from  four  to  six  seconds'  duration)  refer  to  weather,  and  shorter 
blasts  (of  from  one  to  three  seconds'  duration)  refer  to  temperature; 
those  for  weather  are  sounded  first. 

Blasts.  Indicate. 

One  long Fair  weather 

Two  long Rain  or  snow 

Three  long Local  rain  or  snow 

One  short Lower  temperature 

Two  short Higher  temperature 

Three  short Cold  wave 

By  repeating  each  combination  a  few  times,  with  intervals  of 
ten  seconds,  liability  to  error  in  reading  the  signals  may  be 
avoided. 

Explanation  of  Storm   and    Hurricane   Warnings. 

Storm  warning. — A  red  flag  with  a  black  center  indicates  that 
a  storm  of  marked  violence  is  expected. 

The  pennants  displayed  with  the  flags  indicate  the  direction 
of   the  wind:    red,   easterly   (from   northeast   to   south);    white 
westerly   (from   southwest   to   north).     The   pennant   above    the 
flag  indicates  that  the  wind  is  expected  to  blow  from   the  north- 
erly quadrants;    below,  from  the  southerly  quadrants. 

By  night  a  red  light  indicates  easterly  winds,  and  a  white 
light  abo'  e  a  red  light,  westerly  winds. 

Hurricane  "warning. — Two  red  flags  with  black  centers,  dis- 
played one  above  the  other,  indicate  the  expected  approach  of  a 
tropical  hurricane,  or  one  of  those  extremely  severe  and  dangerous 
storms  which  occasionally  move  across  the  Lakes  and  northern 
Atlantic  roast. 

No  night  hurricane  warnings  are  displayed. 


370  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

LIST   OF  HEADQUARTERS   OF   STATE  WEATHER 

SERVICES. 

The  headquarters  of  the  state  weather  services  are  as 
follows: 

Auburn,  Alabama.  Crete,  Nebraska. 

Little  Rock,  Arkansas.  Carson  City,  Nevada. 

Sacramento,  California.  New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey. 

Denver,  Colorado.  Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico. 

Atlanta,  Georgia.  Ithaca,  New  York. 

Springfield,  Illinois.  Raleigh,  North  Carolina. 

Indianapolis  or  Lafayette,  Bismarck,  North  Dakota. 

Indiana.  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Des  Moines,  Iowa.  Portland   or  Oswego,  Oregon. 

Topeka,  Kansas.  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 

Louisville,  Kentucky.  Columbia,  South  Carolina. 

New  Orleans,  Louisiana.  Huron,  South  Dakota. 

Baltimore,  Maryland.  Nashville,  Tennessee. 

Cambridge,  Massachusetts.  Galveston,  Texas. 

Lansing,  Michigan.  Lynchburg,  Virginia. 

Minneapolis,  Minnesota.  Olympia,  Washington. 

University,   Mississippi.  Parkersburg,   West   Virginia. 

Columbia,  Missouri.  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. 

BENEFICIAL  AND  HAR31I  UL  HAAVKS  AND  OWLS. 

(Yearbook  U.  S.  Dcpt.  of  Agriculture.) 

Much  misapprehension  exists  among  farmers  as  to  the 
habits  of  birds  of  prey.  Examination  of  the  contents  of 
the  stomachs  of  such  birds  to  the  number  of  several 
thousand  has  established  the  fact  that  their  food  consists 
almost  entirely  of  injurious  mammals  and  insects,  and  that 
accordingly  these  birds  are  in  most  cases  positively  beneficial 
to  the  farmer,  and  should  be  fostered  ana  protected. 

Among  those  7vholly  beneficial  are  the  large,  rough-legged 
hawk;  its  near  relative,  the  squirrel-hawk,  or  ferruginous 
roughleg;  and  the  four  kites:  the  white-tailed  kite,  Missis- 
sippi kiie,  swallow-tailed  kite,  and  everglade  kite. 

The  class  that  is  boiejicial  in  the  main — that  is,  whose 
depredations  are  of  little  consequence  in  comparison  with 


MISCELLANEOUS   SUBJECTS   AND   TABLES.        371 

the  good  it  does — includes  a  majority  of  the  hawks  and 
owls,  among  them  being  the  following  species  and  their 
races:  March  hawk,  Harris's  hawk,  red-tailed  hawk,  red- 
shouldered  hawk,  short-tailed  hawk,  white-tailed  hawk, 
Swainson's  hawk,  short-winged  hawk,  broad-winged  hawk, 
Mexican  black  hawk,  Mexican  goshawk,  sparrow-hawk, 
Audubon's  caracara,  barn-owl,  long-eared  owl,  short-eared 
o\vl,  great  gray  owl,  barred  owl,  Western  owl,  Richardson's 
owl,  Acadian  owl,  screech-owl,  flammulated  screech-owl, 
snowy  owl,  hawk-owl,  burrowing  owl,  pygmy  owl,  fer- 
ruginous pygmy  owl,  and  elf-owl. 

The  class  in  which  tJie  hartriful  3.x\A  the  beneficial  qualities 
about  balance  each  other  includes  the  golden  eagle,  bald 
eagle,  pigeon-hawk,  Richardson's  hawk,  Aplomado  falcon, 
prairie  falcon,  and  the  great  horned  owl. 

The  /larw/til  c\2iSS  comprises  the  gyrfalcons,  duck-hawk, 
£harp  shinned  hawk.  Cooper's  haw^k,  and  goshawk. 

HOW    PATENTS    ARE    ISSUED. 

Patents  are  issued  in  the  name  of  the  United  States,  and 
under  the  seal  of  the  Patent  Ofhce,  to  any  person  who  has 
invented  or  discovered  any  new  and  useful  art,  machine, 
manufacture,  or  composition  of  matter,  or  any  new  or  use- 
ful improvement  thereof,  not  known  or  used  by  others  in 
this  country,  and  not  patented  or  described  in  any  printed 
publication  in  this  or  any  foreign  country  before  the  inven- 
tion or  discovery  thereof,  and  not  in  public  use  or  on  sale 
for  more  than  two  years  prior  to  his  application,  unless  the 
same  is  proved  to  have  been  abandoned  ;  and  any  person 
who  by  his  own  industry,  genius,  efforts,  and  expense  has 
invented  and  produced  any  new  and  original  design  for  a 
manufacture,  bust,  statua,  alto-relievo  or  bas-relief,  or  any 
new  and  original  design  for  the  printing  of  woolen,  silk, 
cotton,  or  other  fabrics,  any  new  and  original  impression, 
ornament,  patent,  pattern,  print,  or  picture  to  be  painted, 
printed,   cast,   or  otherwise   placed    on   or  worked    into  any 


372  GENERAL  TOPICS. 

article  of  manufacture  ;  or  any  new,  useful,  and  original 
shape  or  configuration  of  any  article  of  manufacture,  the 
same  not  having  been  known  or  used  by  others  before  his 
invention  or  production  thereof,  or  patented  or  described  in 
any  printed  publication,  may,  upon  payment  of  the  fee  pre- 
scribed and  other  due  proceedings  had,  obtain  a  patent  on 
the  same. 

Every  patent  contains  a  short  title  or  description  of  the 
invention  or  discovery,  correctly  indicating  its  nature  and 
design,  and  a  grant  to  the  patentee,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  for 
the  term  of  seventeen  years  of  the  exclusive  right  to  make, 
use,  and  vend  the  invention  or  discovery  throughout  the 
United  States  and  the  Territories,  referring  to  the  specifica-. 
tion  for  the  particulars  thereof. 

If  it  appears  that  the  inventor,  at  the  time  of  making  his 
application,  believed  himself  to  be  the  original  and  first  in- 
ventor or  discoverer,  a  patent  will  not  be  refused  on  account 
of  the  invention  or  discovery  or  any  part  thereof  having 
been  known  or  used  in  a  foreign  country  before  his  inven- 
vention  or  discovery  thereof,  if  it  had  not  been  patented  or 
described  in  a  printed  publication. 

No  person  shall  be  debarred  from  receiving  a  patent  for 
his  invention  by  reason  of  its  having  been  first  patented  in 
a  foreign  country,  unless  the  application  for  the  foreign 
patent  was  filed  more  than  seven  months  prior  to  the  filing 
of  the  application  in  this  country.  But  every  patent  granted 
for  an  invention  which  has  been  previously  patented  in  a 
foreign  country  shall  be  so  limited  as  to  expire  at  the  same 
time  with  the  foreign  patent,  or  if  there  be  more  than  one, 
at  the  same  time  with  the  one  having  the  shortest  term,  but 
in  no  case  shall  it  be  in  force  more  than  seventeen  years. 

Joint  inventors  are  entitled  to  a  joint  patent;  neither  can 
claim  one  separately.  Independent  inventors  of  distinct 
and  independent  improvements  in  the  same  machine  can- 
not obtain  a  joint  patent  for  their  separate  inventions;  nor 
does  the  fact  that  one  furnishes  the  capital  and  another 
makes  the  invention  entitle  them  to  make  application  as 
joint  inventors  ;  but  in  such  cases  they  may  become  joint 
patentees. 


MISCELLANEOUS    SUBJECTS   AND   TABLES.         373 

Appliiations. — Application  for  a  patent  must  be  made  in 
writing  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents.  The  applicant 
must  also  file  in  the  Patent  Office  a  written  description  of 
the  same,  and  of  the  manner  and  process  of  making,  con- 
structing, compounding  and  using  it,  in  such  full,  clear,  con- 
cise, and  exact  terms  as  to  enable  any  person  skilled  in  the 
art  or  science  to  which  it  appertains,  or  with  which  it  is 
most  nearly  connected,  to  make,  construct,  compound,  and 
use  the  same;  and  in  case  of  a  machine,  he  shall  explain  the 
principle  thereof,  and  the  best  mode  in  which  he  has  con- 
templated applying  that  principle,  so  as  to  distinguish  it 
trom  other  inventions;  and  particularly  point  out  and  dis- 
tinctly claim  the  part,  improvement,  or  combination  which 
Lie  claims  as  his  invention  or  discovery.  The  specification 
and  claim  shall  be  signed  by  the  inventor  and  attested  by 
two  witnesses. 

When  the  nature  of  the  case  admits  of  drawings,  the  ap- 
jilicant  must  furnish  a  drawing  of  the  required  size,  signed 
by  the  inventor  or  his  attorney  in  fact,  and  attested  by  two 
vvitnesses,  which  shall  be  filed  in  the  Patent  Office.  In 
rases  of  inventions  that  admit  of  representation  by  model, 
ihe  applicant,  if  required  by  the  Patent  Office,  shall  furnish 
a  model  of  convenient  size  to  exhibit  advantageously  the 
5  iveral  parts  of  the  invention  or  discovery. 

The  applicant  shall  make  oath  that  he  does  verily  believe 
liimself  to  be  the  original  and  first  inventor  and  discoverer 
oi  the  art,  machine,  manufacture,  composition,  or  improve- 
ment for  which  he  solicits  a  patent;  that  he  does  not  know 
£.nd  does  not  believe  that  the  same  was  ever  before  known 
or  used,  and  shall  state  of  what  country  he  is  a  citizen  and 
where  he  resides.  Such  oath  may  be  made  before  any  per- 
son within  the  United  States  authorized  by  law  to  admin- 
ister oaths,  or,  when  the  applicant  resides  in  a  foreign 
country,  before  any  minister,  charge  d'affaires,  consul,  or 
commercial  agent  holding  commission  under  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  or  before  any  notary  public  of 
the  foreign  country  in  which  the  applicant  may  be,  provided 
such  notary  is  authorized  by  the  laws  of  his  country  to 
administer  oaths, 


374  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

On  the  filing  of  such  application  and  the  payment  of  the 
fees  required  by  law,  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  shall 
cause  an  examination  to  be  made,  and  if,  on  such  examina- 
tion, it  appears  that  the  claimant  is  justly  entitled  to  a 
patent  under  the  law,  and  that  the  same  is  sufficiently  use- 
ful and  important,  the  Commissioner  shall  issue  a  patent 
therefor. 

Assign?fietits. — Every  patent  or  any  interest  therein  shall 
be  assignable  in  law  by  an  instrument  in  writing,  and  the 
patentee  or  his  assigns  or  legal  representatives  may  in  like 
manner  grant  and  convey  an  exclusive  right  under  his 
patent  to  the  whole  or  any  specified  part  of  the  United 
States. 

Caveats. — A  caveat,  under  the  patent  law,  is  a  notice 
given  to  the  office  of  the  caveator's  claim  as  inventor,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  grant  of  a  patent  to  another  for  the 
same  alleged  invention  upon  an  application  filed  during 
the  life  of  the  caveat  without  notice  to  the  caveator. 

Any  citizen  of  the  United  States  who  has  made  a  new 
invention  or  discovery,  and  desires  more  time  to  mature 
the  same,  may,  on  payment  of  a  fee  of  ten  dollars,  file  in 
the  Patent  Office  a  caveat  setting  forth  the  object  and  the 
distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  invention,  and  praying 
protection  of  his  right  until  he  shall  have  matured  his 
invention.  Such  caveats  shall  be  filed  in  the  confidential 
archives  of  the  office  and  preserved  in  secrecy,  and  shall  be 
operative  for  the  term  of  one  year  from  the  filing  thereof. 

An  alien  shall  have  the  privilege  herein  granted  if  he 
has  resided  in  the  United  States  one  year  next  preceding 
the  filing  of  his  caveat,  and  has  made  oath  of  his  intention 
to  become  a  citizen. 

Fees. — The  following  are  the  rates  for  patent  fees,  and 
these  are  payable  in  advance: 

On  filing  each  original  application  for  a  patent  (except  in 
design  cases),  S15. 

On  issuing  each  original  patent  (except  in  design  cases), 
$20. 

In  design  cases:  For  three  years  and  six  months,  $10; 
for  seven  years,  $15;  for  fourteen  years,  $30. 


MISCELLANEOUS   SUBJECTS   AND   TABLES.        375 

On  filing  each  caveat,  $io. 

On  every  application  for  the  reissue  of  a  patent,  $30. 

On  filing  each  disclaimer,  $10. 

On  every  application  for  the  extension  of  a  patent,  $50. 

On  the  granting  of  every  extension  of  a  patent,  $50. 

For  certified  copies  of  patents  and  other  papers  in  manu- 
script, 10  cents  per  hundred  words. 

For  recording  every  assignment,  agreement,  power  of 
attorney,  or  other  paper  of  three  hundred  words  or  under, 
$l;  of  over  three  hundred  words  and  under  one  thousand 
words,  $2;  of  over  one  thousand  words,  $3.  For  copies  of 
drawings,  the  reasonable  cost  of  making  them. 

LEGAL.    HOLIDAYS^ 

January  i,  JVew  Year's:  All  States  except  Massachusetts, 
Minnesota,  New  Hampshire,  and  Rhode  Island. 

January  8,  Anniversary  of  Battle  of  N'ew  Orleans  :  Loui- 
siana. 

January  ig,  Lee's  Birthday  :  Florida,  Georgia,  North  Car- 
olina, and  Virginia. 

February  12,  Lincoln' s  Birthday  :  Illinois,  Minnesota,  New 
Jersey,  New  York,  and  Washington. 

February  22,  Washington' s  Birthday  :  All  States  except 
Iowa,  Mississippi,  and  New  Mexico. 

March  2,   Texan  Lndependence  Anniversary  :  Texas. 

April,  first  Saturday,  Arbor  Day  :   Utah. 

April,  first  Wednesday,  Election  Day  :  Rhode  Island. 

April  19,  Concord  Day  :  Massachusetts. 

April  21,  Anniversary  of  Battle  of  San  Jacinto  :  Texas. 

April  22,  Arbor  Day  :  Nebraska. 

April  26,  Memorial  Day  :  Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia,  and 
Tennesseeo 

May,  first  Friday,  Arbor  Day  :  Rhode  Island  and  Idaho. 

May  10,  Memorial  Day  :   North  Carolina. 

May  20,  Mecklenbnrg  Declaration  of  Lndependence :  North 
Carolina. 

May  30,  ULemorial  Day :  All  States  except  Alabama, 
Arkansas,    Florida,    Georgia,    Kentucky,    Louisiana,    New 


376  GENERAL  TOPICS. 

Mexico,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina.  Texas,  and  Vir- 
ginia. 

June  3,  y>^<?rj-c«  ZJaz'zx'    Birthday:   Florida. 

July  4,  Independence  Day  :  All  States  and  District  of  Co- 
lumbia. 

July  24,  Pioneers^  Day  :   Utah. 

August  16,   Benjiington  Battle  Day  :  Vermont. 

September,  first  Monday,  Labor  Day  :  All  States  and  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia. 

September  g,  Admission  Day  :  California. 

October  15,  Lincoln  Day  :  Connecticut. 

October  31,  Admission  into  the  Union  Anniversary  :  Ne- 
vada. 

November,  General  Election  Day  (first  Tuesday  after  first 
Monday)  :  Arizona,  California,  Colorado,  Florida,  Idaho, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Maryland,  Minnesota,  ^Missouri,  Montana, 
Nevada,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  North 
Dakota,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  South 
Carolina,  South  Dakota,  Tennessee,  Texas,  Washington, 
West  Virginia,  W^isconsin,  and  Wyoming. 

November,  last  Thursday,  Thanksgiving  Day:  In  all 
States,  though  not  a  stationary  holiday  in  some. 

December  25,  Christmas  Day  :  All  States  and  District  of 
Columbia. 

Arbor  Day  is  a  legal  holiday  in  Idaho,  Kansas,  Rhode 
Island,  and  Wyoming,  the  day  being  set  by  the  governor. 

Mardi  Gras  (the  last  day  before  Lent)  is  observed  as  a 
holiday  in  Alabama  and  Louisiana. 

Good  Friday  is  observed  as  a  holiday  in  Alabama,  Georgia, 
Louisiana,  Maryland,  Minnesota,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ten- 
nessee. 

Every  Saturday  after  12  o' clock  noon  is  a  legal  holiday  in 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  New  Orleans  ;  also  from  June 
to  September  in  Colorado  and  Pennsylvania. 


MISCELLAJfEOUS   SUBJECTS   AXD   TABLES.        377 

WIL4.T   TO   DO   IX   CASE   OF  ACCIDENTS. 

By  J.  NoER,  M.D.,  Stoughton,  Wis. 

To  consider  the  cause,  nature,  clTcct,  and  treatment  of  the 
mukipUcity  of  injuries  due  to  accidents  is  impossible,  except 
in  a  treatise  devoted  to  the  subject.  The  object  here  is  to  instruct 
the  layman  to  use  his  reason  and  good  sense  to  aid  the  afflicted 
till  skilled  help  arrives.  It  is  especially  important  that  he  refrains 
from  doing  a  lot  of  foolish  things,  and  does  not  give  or  apply 
remedies  about  which  he  knows  nothing,  the  effects  of  which 
are  often  more  dangerous  to  the  patient  than  the  injury  itself. 

The  svmptoms  demanding  urgent  attention  after  an  injury  are 
usually  shock,  pain,  bleeding,  support,  and  adjustment  of 
mangled  or  broken  limbs,  protection  to  open  wounds,  burned 
surfaces,  bruises,  etc. 

Wounds, — The  all-important  item  in  the  treatment  of  wounds 
or  cuts  is  absolute  cleanliness  or  asepsis.  Asepsis  can  be  secured 
by  having  everything  that  is  to  be  used  for  the  wound  boiled  just 
I  efore  applying  it. 

Before  dressing  a  wound: 

ist.  Wash  vour  hands,  scrub  and  clean  finger-nails  thoroughly 
v;ith  soap  and  hot  boiled  water. 

2d.  Wash  the  limb  or  parts  around  cut  or  wound  with  boiled 
Avatcr  and  soap,  being  careful  not  to  wash  dirt  from  around  the 
lore  into  it. 

3d.  Wash  out  the  wound  with  hot  boiled  water.  If  there 
is  still  oozing  from  the  cut  surfaces, press  clean  cloths 
wrung  out  of  boiled  water  as  hot  as  hands  can  bear  against 
the  bleeding  surfaces  till  it  stops. 

4th.  Draw  the  edges  of  the  wound  together  with  strips 
of  court-plaster. 

5th.  Lay  over  the  wound  so  as  to  cover  it  well  ten  to 
twelve  thicknesses  of  clean  boiled  and  baked  dry  cheese- 
cloth, sheeting,  or  linen,  and  fasten  on  with  a  bandage.        \ 

6th.  Let  the  injured  parts  be  at  rest.  If  you  havj 
secured  asepsis  and  gotten  the  edges  of  the  wound  togethev 
closely,  keep  the  wounded  parts  at  rest  for  from  three  to  six 
days;  the  wound  will  then  heal  untltoiit  pain  or  pus,  ariri 
•vithout   swelling,    inflammation,  or   fever.     Don't    hinder 


378  GEis"ERAL    TOPICS, 

the  healing  of  a  wound  by  putting  pitch,  tobacco  juice. 
"  healing  ointments,"  liniments,  or  other  filth  into  it. 

Broken  or  Mangled  Ijinibs  should  be  supported  by 
temporary  splints,  made  from  boards,  pasteboard,  shingles, 
etc.  Put  one  on  each  side  of  the  limD  and  tie  on  with 
handkerchief  or  bandages.  The  splints  should  be  long 
enough  to  support  entire  limb. 

Burns  and  Scalds — If  the  burn  is  extensive,  place  the 
person  in  a  bath  of  lukewarm  water,  keep  the  body  im- 
mersed up  to  the  chin,  see  that  the  water  is  kept  warm; 
patient  may  be  left  in  bath  indefinitely.  If  the  burn  is  not 
large,  but  painful,  cover  the  burnod  surface  with  a  thick 
layer  of  flour,  powdered  starch,  zinc  ointment,  or  cotton 
batting.  Equal  parts  of  limewater  and  linseed  oil  may  be 
applied,  and  the  burn  covered  with  cotton.  It  is  impor- 
tant in  burns  to  apply  a  dressing  that  will  exclude  the  air. 
In  large  burns  there  is  always  severe  shock:  treat  this 
as  directed  below. 

Shock. — When  a  person  has  been  severely  injured  or  badly 
frightened,  there  follows  a  condition  of  the  nervous  system 
which  is  known  as  shock.  A  person  suffering  from  shock 
generally  becomes  pale,  cold,  faint,  and  trembling,  with  a  small 
weak  pulse.  The  mind  is  dull  and  the  person  looks  anxious  and 
distressed.     Sometimes  the  person  is  excited  and  restless. 

Treatment. — Let  the  person  rest  in  a  quiet  cheerful 
place.  If  he  is  little  injured,  tell  him  so  calmly.  If  the 
injury  is  severe,  and  there  is  pain,  broken  bones,  bleeding, 
etc.,  you  must  still  be  calm,  cheerful,  and  helpful.  Give  a 
tablespoonful  (2  or  3,  if  a  drinker)  of  whiskey  in  water  every 
quarter  or  half  hour.  Wrap  him  in  warm  blankets  and 
Liy  hot  water  bottles  around  him.  If  there  is  much  pain, 
give  ID  drops  of  laudanum.  In  case  of  bleeding,  open 
wounds,  or  broken  bones,  treat  them  as  directed.  A  flushed 
face  and  fever  show  that  the  patient  is  reviving  and  does 
not  need  hot-water  bottles  or  whiskey.  Never  let  an  in- 
jured person  be  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  people. 

Pain  is  frequently  relieved  by  the  adjustment  and  support  of 
mangled  limbs,  by  protecting  exposed  open  wounds,  burns, 
bruises,  etc.,  with  clean  gauze  dressings.  Morphin  \  grain,  or 
20  drops  of  laudanum,  or  i  grain  of  opium  can  be  given  if  pain 


MTSOEI.LAXEOUS    PUBJFrTS    AND    TABLES.         379 

is  unbearable.  Unless  absolutely  necessary  this  treatment 
should  be  left  to  the  physician. 

Hemorrhage  or  Bleetliii<j  always  occurs  after  an  in- 
iury.  It  is  the  result  of  the  tearing  or  cutting  off  of  the 
blood-vessels.  A  person  suffering  from  hemorrhage  either 
internal  or  external  is  pale,  faint,  with  feeble  pulse. 

Treatment. — Keep  the  person  quiet.  If  the  bleeding 
comes  from  a  wound  in  the  upper  or  lower  limbs,  it  will 
stop  by  raising  the  limb  up  above  the  rest  of  the  body. 
Tie  clean  cloths  tightly  over  the  sore.  \i  ihe  blood  comes 
in  spurts,  tie  a  rope  or  handkerchief  tightly  around  limb 
above  cut  nearest  to  body.  If  bleeding  is  slight,  it  will 
stop  by  tying  clean  cloths  tightly  over  the  cut.  Ice  may 
be  applied  over  the  bleeding  vessels.  Clean  cloths  wrung 
out  of  water  as  hot  as  hands  can  bear  is  often  effective. 

Never  use  cobwebs,  tobacco  juice,  or  other  filthy  things 
to  stop  bleeding.  If  a  person  spits  or  coughs  up  red  frothy 
blood,  he  is  probably  bleeding  from  the  lungs.  Lei  him 
lie  down,  and  if  it  continues  to  come  up  apply  ice  to  chest 
and  give  a  teaspoonful  of  extract  of  ergot. 

Sunstroke  and  Heat  Kxhaustioii. — In  sunsfoke  the 
person  has  a  red  face;  skin  is  hot  and  dry;  there  is  high 
:tever;  breathing  and  pulse  are  very  rapid.  There  is  often 
delirium  and  convulsions.  Put  the  pa.ien:  in  a  cold  bath; 
apply  ice  to  the  head  and  rub  the  skin  with  pieces  of  ice. 
If  he  cannot  be  put  into  a  bath,  put  him  in  the  shade  and 
pour  cold  water  over  him,  or  wrap  him  in  cold  wet  blank- 
ets and  pour  cold  water  over  his  head.  In  heat  exhaus- 
tion the  patient  is  pale  and  the  skin  cool.  There  is  no 
fever.  Let  the  person  rest  in  the  shade.  Give  stimulants, 
as  hot  coffee  or  whiskey. 

Poisoning'. — In  any  case  of  poisoning  when  the  kind  of 
poison  is  unknown,  induce  vomiting  at  once  by  giving 
warm  water  with  or  without  a  tablespoonful  of  ground 
mustard,  or  double  this  amount  of  salt  to  the  teacup. 
Thrust  your  finger  down  his  throat  to  help  the  emetic. 
Milk,  raw  eggs,  gruel,  oil  should  be  given  freely  if  irritant 
poisons,  like  potash,  lye,  or  acids,  have  been  taken.  The 
following  table  contains  suggestions  for  the  proper  treat- 
ment of  the  forms  of  poisoning  occurring  most  frequently; 


380 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


Poison. 


Treatment. 


Acids: 
Sulfuric, 
Nitric, 
Muriatic, 
Oxalic. 


Carbolic  acid  and 
creosote. 


Alkalies: 
Ammonia, 
Soda, 
Potash, 
Lye. 

Arsenic,  -, 

Paris  green,  [ 

Poison  fly-paper,   | 
Rough  on  rats.       -' 

Corrosive      subli- 
mate. 


lodin. 


Opiiim, 
Morphin , 
Laudanum 
Paregoric, 

Poison    gas    from 
coal  stove. 


Give  soap,  soda,  whitewash,  or  magnesia  mixed   in 

water.      Produce  vomiting. 
Give  gruel,  milk,  eggs  (tmcooked). 
Relieve  pain  by  giving  lo  drops  of  laudanum  in 

water. 

Give  Epsnm  salts,  raw  eggs. 

Produce  vomiting.  Alcohol  is  the  antidote.  Give 
whisky,  brandy,  or  alcohol  freely  if  acid  has  been 
swallowed.  Externally  apply  alcohol  or  cloths 
or  cotton  soaked  in  alcohol  to  the  surface  burned 
by  the  acid. 

Give  vinegar,  lemon  or  orange  juice,  or  any  acid 

diluted  in  plenty  of  water. 
Give  milk,  gruel,  white  of  egg,  oils. 
For  pain  give  lo  drops  of  lavidanum. 

Produce  vomiting  if  theie  is  none  already. 
Hydrated  oxid  of  iron  \.'ith  magnesia  in  water  is 

the  antidote. 
Give  2  tablespoonsful  of  castor  oil. 

Produce  vomiting.     Give  a  teaspoonful  of  tann  n 

in  water. 
Give  raw  eggs,  m.ilk,  castor  oil. 

Produce  vomiting. 

Give  starch  and  water,  raw  eggs,  milk,  or  gruel. 

Produce  vomiting.  Inject  from  a  pint  to  a  quart 
of  strong  coffee  into  rectum,  or  give  by  mouth  if 
patient  can  swallow. 

Potassium  permanganate  is  antidote. 

Keep  patient  awake. 

Fresh  air;    stimulants,  as  coffee,  ammonia. 


MISCELLANEOUS   SUBJECTS    AND    TABLES.         ouL 

The  following  additional  suggestions  are  offered: 

Lightning. — Dash  cold  water  over  person  struck. 

3Iacl-dog'-  or  Siiake-bite. — Tie  cord  tight  above  wound. 
Suck  the  wound  and  cauterize  with  caustic  or  white-hot 
iron  at  once,  or  cut  out  adjoining  parts  with  a  sharp  knife. 
Give  stimulants,  as  whisky,  brandy,  etc. 

Sting  of  Venomous  Insects,  etc. — Apply  weak  am- 
monia, oil,  salt  water,  or  iodin. 

Fainting. — Place  fiat  on  back,  allow  fresh  air,  and 
sprinkle  with  water.      Place  head  lower  than  rest  of  body. 

Cinders  in  the  Kye. — Roll  soft  paper  up  like  a  lamp- 
lighter and  wet  the  tip  to  remove  cinder,  or  use  a  medicine- 
dropper  to  draw  it  out.      Rub  the  other  eye. 

Fire  in  One's  Clothing. — Don't  run,  especially  not 
down-stairs  or  out-of-doors.  Roll  on  carpet,  or  wrap  in 
woolen  rug  or  blanket.  Keep  the  head  down  so  as  not  to 
inhale  flame. 

Fire  in  a  Building. — Crawl  on  the  floor.  The  clearest 
air  is  the  lowest  in  the  room.  Cover  head  with  woolen 
wrap,  wet  if  possible. 

Fire  from  Kerosene. — Don't  use  water,  it  will  spread 
the  fl.ames.  Dirt,  sand,  or  flour  is  the  best  extinguisher; 
or  smother  with  woolen  rug,  table-cloth  or  carpet. 

Suffocation  from  Inhaling  Illuminating-gas. — Get  into 
fresh  air  as  soon  as  possible,  and  lie  down.  Keep  warm. 
Take  ammonia,  20  drops  to  a  tumbler  of  water,  at  frequent 
intervals  ;  also  2-4  drops  tincture  of  nux  vomica  every 
hour  or  two  for  5  or  6  hours.     {World Almanac,  1899.) 


382 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


INTEREST    TABLES. 


4% 

$1 

$2 
O 

1.? 

$4 

$5 
o 

$6 
o 

$7 
o 

$8 

$9   . 

$10 

^iflOO 

$1000 

4    DAY. 

o 

o 

o 

0 

0 

0 

S 

45 

8      '• 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

0 

I 

I 

9 

89 

12          " 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

I 

1 

z 

I 

2 

13 

1-34 

i6      " 

o 

o 

o 

o 

I 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

18 

1.78 

20         " 

o 

o 

o 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

« 

2 

22 

2.22 

24         " 

o 

o 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

27 

2.67 

28         " 

o 

o 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

31 

3-it 

I    MO.  . 

o 

o 

I 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

33 

3-.S4 

2         " 

o 

2 

2 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

6 

7 

67 

6.67 

3         " 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

1 .00 

lO.OO 

6      " 

2 

4 

b 

8 

lO 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

2.00 

20.00 

'  I    YR. .. 

4 

8 

12 

i6 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

4.00 

40.00 

5% 

$1 

$2 
0 

$3 
0 

$4 
0 

$5 
0 

$6 

$7 

$8 
0 

$9 

$10 

$100 
6 

$1000 

4    DAY. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

56 

8      " 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

I 

1 

I 

I 

II 

1. 11 

12        " 

0 

0 

0 

0 

I 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

17 

1.67 

16        " 

0 

0 

0 

I 

I 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

22 

2.22 

20         " 

0 

0 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

27 

2.74 

24         " 

28         " 

0 
0 

0 

I 

I 
I 

2 
2 

2 
2 

2 
3 

3 
3 

3 
3 

3 
4 

3 
4 

33 
.^8 

3-34 
384 

1  MO.  . 

2  " 

0 
I 

I 
2 

2 
3 

2 
4 

2 
4 

3 
5 

3 
6 

4 
7 

1 

4 
9 

42 
83 

4.17 
8.34 

3     " 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

9 

10 

1 1 

13 

1-25 

12 .50 

6     " 

3 

5 

8 

10 

13 

15 

18 

20 

23 

25 

2.50 

25.00 

I    YR  .  . 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

500 

50.00 

e% 


4  DAY. 

8      '• 

12  " 

16  " 

20  " 

24  " 

1  MO.  . 

2  " 

3  " 

6  " 

I  YR. .  . 


$1 

$2 
0 

$3 
0 

$4 
0 

$5 
0 

$6 
0 

$7 

$8 

$9 

$10 

$100 

$IOOO 

0 

0 

I 

I 

I 

7 

67 

0 

0 

0 

I 

I 

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I 

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1-33 

0 

0 

I 

I 

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I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

20 

2.00 

0 

I 

I 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

27 

2.67 

I 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

33 

3-. S3 

I 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

40 

4.00 

I 

I 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

50 

5.00 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

0 

7 

8 

9 

10 

1. 00 

10.00 

2 

3 

5 

6 

8 

9 

II 

12 

14 

15 

I  50 

15.00 

3 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

3.00 

30.00 

6 

12 

18 

24 

30 

30 

42 

48 

54 

60 

6.00 

60.00 

7% 

$1 
0 

$2 
0 

$3 
0 

$4 
0 

$5 
0 

$6 
0 

$7 

$8 

$9 

$10 

$100 

$1000 

4    DAY. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

8 

77 

8        '^ 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

I 

I 

I 

1 

15 

1-55 

12         " 

0 

0 

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2 

2 

23 

2.31 

16         " 

0 

0 

0 

I 

I 

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2 

2 

2 

3 

3T 

3.10 

20         " 

0 

0 

I 

1 

I 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

38 

384 

24         " 

0 

0 

I 

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2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

5 

46 

4.62 

I    MO.  . 

0 

I 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

58 

5.83 

2       " 

I 

2 

3 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

1. 17 

11.67 

3     '' 

2 

3 

5 

7 

9 

10 

12 

U 

16 

18 

1-75 

17-50 

6     " 

4 

7 

1 1 

M 

18 

21 

25 

28 

32 

35 

3-50 

35  00 

1    YR.  .. 

7 

M 

21 

28 

35 

42 

49 

sf^ 

b3 

70 

7 .00 

70.00 

MISCELLA2^E0US    SUBJECTS    AND    TABLES. 


383 


TABLE    OF    A\  AGES    BY    THE    WEEK. 

(Computed  en  a  basis  of  ten  liouis'  labor  per  day.) 


(L) 

I 

2 

5 

8 

9 

I 

2 

3 

4            5 

6 

ffl 

Hr. 

Hrs. 

Hrs. 

Hrs. 

Hrs. 

Day. 

•50 

Days. 

Days. 

Days.  Days. 

Days. 

$3 

•  o.S 

.10 

•25 

.40 

-45 

1. 00 

1.50 

2.00      2.50 

3.00 

4 

•o6S 

•1.34 

.334 

•533 

.60 

.66^ 

1-3.4 

2.00 

2-661    3  33I 

4.00 

5 

.o8i 

.i6§ 

•4'§ 

.665 

-75 

-«34 

i.66§ 

2.50 

3  .334    4-i6t 

5.00 

b 

.lO 

.20 

•50 

.80 

.90 

1. 00 

2.00 

3.00 

4    GO          5.00 

6.00 

7 

.11^ 

■234 

.5«4 

•933 

I. OS 

i.ifi 

2-334 

3-50 

4-66§    5-834 

7  00 

8 

M^ 

.26§ 

.665 

1 .  063 

1 .20 

1-334 

2.66§ 

4.00 

5-334    6.66i 

8.00 

9 

•J5 

.30, 

.75 

1 .20 

1-35 

1.50 

3.00 

4-5" 

6.00      7.50 

Q.OO 

lO 

.16^ 

•33* 

.H34 

1-334 

1.50 

1.66^ 

3  •333 

5.00 

6  66|    8.334 

10.00 

ii 

.18^ 

•36§ 

•913 

1.463 

1.65 

i^«34 

3 -661 

5-50 

7-334    9-i6§ 

11.00 

l2 

20 

.40 

1. 00 

1.60 

1.80 

2.00 

4.00 

6.00 

8.00    10.00 

12.00 

13 

.21^ 

•434 

1.084 

I-733 

1-95 

2.lt,H 

4  334 

6.50 

8.66§  10. 83^ 

13.00 

14 

•23* 

•465 

i.i6§ 

i.86§ 

2.10 

2^334 

4.66§ 

7.00 

9.334  i'-66§ 

14.00 

15 

•2S 

•50 

1.25 

2.00 

2.25 

2.50 

5  00 

7-50 

10.00    12.50 

TS.OO 

ifc 

.26^ 

•5.34 

1-334 

2-134 

2.40 

2  66§ 

5  334 

8.00 

10  66|  13. 33^ 
"333  14-162 

16.00 

^7 

.28i 

•56i 

i.4i§ 

2.26§ 

2-55 

2.834 

5^66^ 

8.50 

17.00 

i8 

•^o 

.60 

1.50 

2.40 

2.70 

3  00 

6.00 

9  00 

12. 00       15.00 

18.00 

19 

•  31* 

■634 

I -.584 

2  534 

2.85 

3-T6fl 

6.334 

950 

12.66^  15.8.4 

19.00 

20 

•33i 

■66§ 

i.66§ 

2 .  66  § 

3.00 

3-334 

6.66^ 

10  00 

t3.334t6.66? 

20.00 

24 

.40 

.80 

2.00 

3.20 

3.00 

4.00 

8.00 

12.00 

16.00    20.00 

1 

24.00 

TABLE    OF    WAGES    BY   THE    DAY. 

(Computed  on  a  basis  of  ten  hours"'  labor  per  day  ) 


25c. 

37^C. 

joc. 

62^c. 
-034 

75c. 
.0,1 

87^0. 
-04b 

$1.00 

$I.12i 
•054 

$1   25 

i  hour.. 

.01} 

.oil 

.02i 

.05 

.o6i 

I      " 

.02^ 

-03I 

-05 

.o6i 

-07J 

.o8f 

.•10 

.Ili 

.12^ 

2      " 

-05 

•  07  J- 

.10 

.I2i 

•15 

-17? 

.20 

.22^ 

•  25 

5   ;' 

.12^ 

.i8| 

.25 

•3ii 

-37* 

•43l 

•50 

•56i 

.62^ 

8      '• 

.20 

•30 

.40 

•50 

.60 

.70 

.80 

.90 

.$1  00 

9      " 

.22f 

-3.3f 

•45 

-.56i 

.67* 

-78f 

*  -^^ 

i.oii 

I  .  12^^ 

I  day... 

•25 

•37^ 

*   -5° 

,   -^^^ 

^  -75 

.    •^7* 

$  t.oo 

T.12i^ 

I     25 

2  days.. 

•50 

*    -75 

$1.00 

$1.25 

•t'i.50 

$1-75 

2  00 

2.25 

2.50 

3   :; 

3t>i.oo 

$I.I2j 

1.50 

1.87* 

2.25 

2. 62  J 

3.00 

3^37J 

3^75 

4       " 

1.50 

2.00 

2.50 

3  00 

3-50 

4.00 

4  50 

S.OQ 

5       " 

1-25 

1.87^ 

2.50 

3    T2i 

3-75 

4-37J 

5.00 

5.62^ 

6.25 

6      " 

1.50 

2.25 

3.00 

3-75 

4-50 

5-25 

6.00 

6-75 

7-50 

$1.37* 

$1.50 

$i.62.J   $1.75 

$1.87* 

$2.00 
.10 

$2.12j^ 

$2.25 

i  hour.. 

.06  J 

•07J- 

.o8|      .08! 

.09? 

-lO^t 

.11} 

1      " 

-V3l 

•15 

.i6i      .174 

.m 

.20 

.2li 

.224 

2      " 

.27^1        .30 

•32*      .35 

.37* 

^  -4° 

.K  -42* 

^    -45 

5      " 

-68j|       .75 

-8ii'     .87^. 

-93J 

$1.00 

$i.o6i- 

$1,124 

8      " 

$1.10  1  $1.20 

$1.30    $1.40 

$1.50 

1.60 

1.70 

1.80 

0       " 

1-23J      I -35 

1.46}    1.57^ 

I.68« 

1.80 

1.91^^ 

2.024 

I  day... 

1 . 37J      1 .  50 

1.62};  1.75 

1.874 

2.00 

2.12^^ 

2.25 

2  days.. 

2-75        3-00 

3-25  ;  350 

3  75 

4  00 

4  25 

4-50 

3      " 

4.12}      4.50 

4^87i'  525 

5  62I 

6.00 

6-^74 

6.75 

4 

5.50       6.00 

6 . 50      7 . 00 

7-50 

8  00 

8.50 

9.00 

5      .' 

6.87i:     7.50 

8.12*    8.75 

9  37-3 

10.  ro 

to  624 

11.25 

6      " 

8.25 

9.00 

9.75    10.50 

11.2"; 

12    00 

12.75 

13-50 

$2.37^ 

.ITj 

•23i- 
-474- 
$i.i8J- 
t  .90 
2.13} 
2-374 
4-75 
7.124 

9  50 
11.874 
14.25 


184 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


■33a 


N    rO  r»-  lOVO    t^oo    O  O 


■AON 


•i->o 


•ki.>s 


00   O'  O   -"    CN    "1  •^  lo^o    1-^00   o-  O    "^   <N   m  -^  i/^vo    r^oo   c>  o   ►-    m    ro  ^  mo   r-^co 
1^  r^oo  oooooooocooooooooo   oo^oooooooo-o   O   O   o   o   o   c   O   O 


inmio^oioiou^ioioioioiAioioioioiotoioirju^iOiOiriiriiomu^ioio 


•^■^■^■^•^■^■^•^■^■vinmtritninminirivri^iriu^' 


lO  lO  lO  U-) 


O  r^oo  C^  0  —  c^  -'O  -r  lOO  r^oo  O^  O  *h  w  f.  ^t-  lovo  r^oo  Qs  O  •-  0*  ro  ■^  lO 
tr,  m  m  io\o  vo-c^^ovOvC'OvOvo  r^r-«t^t^i-^r^i^r^t^  i-^oo  oo  oo  oo  oo  oo 
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MISCELLANEOUS    SUBJECTS    AXD   TABLES.      385 

DO]\irS,TIC    POSTAGE. 

Firsl-c/ass.  Letters  ar.d  oiher  matter,  \vh-  lly  or  partly  in 
writing,  and  matter  sealed  or  otherwise  closed  against  inspec- 
tion, 2  cerils  for  each  ounce  or  fraction  thereof. 

Post  cards,  ar.d  postal  cards,  i  cent  each. 

"Drop  letters,"  i  cent  for  each  ounce  or  fraction  thereof 
when  mailed  at  post-ofhces  where  letter  carrier  service  is  not 
established  and  i.t  ofrue^  where  the  patrons  can  not  be  served 
by  rural  or  star  route  carriers. 

A  "drop  letter"  is  one  addressed  for  delivery  at  the  office 
where  mailed.  Letters  deposited  in  boxes  along  a  rural  or  star 
route  are  subject  to  postage  at  the  rate  of  2  cents  an  ounce  or 
fraction  thereof.   There  is  no  drop  rate  on  mail  other  than  letters. 

Second-class — Unsealed.  Newspapers  and  periodical  publica- 
tions of  the  second  class,  when  sent  by  others  than  the  publi^h^r 
or  a  news  agent,  i  cent  for  each  four  ounces  or  fraction  thereof, 
on  each  separately  addressed  copy  or  package  of  unaddressed 
copies,  to  be  prepaid  by  stamps  alllxed. 

To  be  er.titled  to  the  rate  of  i  cent  for  four  ounces,  copies 
of  newspapers  or  periodical  publications  must  be  complete. 
Partial  or  incomplete  copies  are  third-class  matter. 

Third-class — Unsealed.  Printed  matter,  i  cent  for  each  two 
ounces  or  fraction  thereof,  on  each  indix'idually  addressed  piece 
or  parcel. 

Fourth-class — Unsealed.  IMerchandise,  i  cent  for  each  ounce 
or  fraction  thereof,  on  each  individually  addressed  piece  or  parcel, 
except  seeds,  bulbs,  roots,  scions,  and  plants,  on  which  the 
rate  is  i  cent  fcr  each  two  ounces  or  fraction  thereof. 

Concealed  KaHcr.  ]\hitter  of  a  higher  class  e  ic'osed  with  matter 
of  a  lower  class  subjects  the  whole  package  to  the  higher  rate. 

For  knowingly  concealing  or  enclosing  any  matter  of  a  higher 
class  in  that  of  a  lower  class,  and  dc{)Ositing  or  causing  the  same 
to  be  deposited  in  the  mails,  at  a  less  rate  than  would  be  charged 
for  such  higher-class  matter,  the  otYender  is  liable  to  a  fine  of 
not  more  than  one  hundred  dollars. 

FOREIGN    POSTAGE. 

The  rates  of  postage  applicable  to  articles  for  foreign  countries 
are  as  follows: 


386  GENERAL  TOPICS. 

Cents. 
Letters  for  England,  Ireland.  Newfoundland,  Scotland  and  Wales 

per  ounce 2 

Letters  for  Germany  by  direct  steamers,  per  ounce 2 

Letters  for  all  other  foreign  countries,  and  for  Germany  when 
not  dispatched  by  direct  steamers: 

For  the  first  ounce  or  fraction  of  an  ounce S 

For  each  additional  ounce  or  fraction  of  an  ounce 3 

Single  postcards  (including  souvenir  cards),  each 2 

Reply  post  cards,  each 4 

Printed  matter  of  all  kinds,  for  each  two  ounces  or  fraction  of  two 

ounces I 

Commercial  papers,  for  the  first  ten  ounces  or  less S 

For  each  additional  two  ounces  or  fraction  of  two  ounces.  ...  i 

Samples  of  merchandise,  for  the  first  four  ounces  or  less 2 

For  each  additional  two  ounces  or  fraction  of  two  ounces.  ...  i 

Registration  fee  in  addition  to  postage lO 

PARCEL  POST,  FOR  U.  S.  AND  POSSESSIONS. 

Weight  limit,  50  pounds  (first  and  second  zones),  20  pounds  (other 
zones).  Size,  length  and  girth  combined,  72  inches.  4  ozs.  or  less,  x  cent 
an  ounce,  regardless  of  distance.  Over  4  ozs.  at  following  rates,  a 
fraction  of  a  pound  being  considered  a  full  pound. 


Zone. 

Distances. 

First  Pound. 

Each  Addi- 
tionalPound. 

Local 

First 

(within  P.  0.  District) 
within  50  miles 

5  cents 
S     " 

I  cent 
I     " 

Second. .  .  . 

Third 

Fourth. .  .  . 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh. . . 
Eighth 

50-100  miles 

150-300     " 

300-600     ' ' 

600-1000   " 

1000-1400   " 

1400-1800   " 

Over  1800   " 

5  " 

6  " 

7  " 

8  " 

9  " 

11  " 

12  " 

1  " 

2  " 

4    " 

6     " 

8     " 

10     " 

12     " 

Address  of  sender,  preceded  by  the  word  "From,"  required.  In- 
surance against  loss  not  to  e-xceed  S25,  5  cents  extra;  and  not  to'ex- 
ceed  Iso,  10  cents  extra. 

Money  Order  Fees. — For  Money  Orders  in  denominations 
of  $100  or  less,  the  following  fees  are  charged:  Orders  not  exceed- 
ing $2.50,  3c.;  over  $2.50  to  $5,  5c.;  $5  to  $10,  8c.;  $10  to 
$20,  loc;  $20  to  $30,  I2C.;  $30  to  $40,  15c.;  $40  to  $50,  i8c.; 
$50  to  $60,  20c.;  $60  to  $75,  25c.;  $75  to  $100,  30c. 


INTERNATIONAL    OR   FOREIGN   MONEY-ORDER   FEES. 


For  orders  of  Sio,  or  less  loc. 

Over  $10,  not  e.xceeding  $20,  20c. 
Over  $20,  not  exceeding  S30,  30c. 
Over  $30,  not  exceeding  S40,  40c. 
Over  $40,  not  exceeding  $50,  50c. 


Over  S50,  not  exceeding  S60,  60c. 
Over  S60,  not  exceeding  S70,  70c. 
Over  $70,  not  exceeding  $80,  80c. 
Over  S80,  not  exceeding  590,  90c. 
Over  J90,  not  exceeding  $100,  $1. 


Express  Money  Orders  may  be  bought  of  the  leading  express 
companies  at  the  following  rates:  Not  over  $2.50,  3c.;  $2.50  to 
$5,  5c.;  $5  to  $10,  Sc;  $10  to  $20,  loc;  $20  to  $30,  12c.;  $30 
to  $40,  15c.;  $40  to  $50,  iSc;  $50  to  $60,  20c.;  $60  to  $75,  25c.; 
$75  to  $100,  30c.;  over  $100  at  above  rates. 


WEIGHTS   AND    MEASUUES.  38? 


III.     WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES. 

CUST03IAKY    SYSTK3I    OF   W  EIGHTS   AND 
MEASURES. 

I.    AVeights. 

A.  AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 

I  ton  =  2000  pounds  (lbs.)  ;* 

t  lb.  s  i6  ounces  (oz.)  =  256  drams  =  768  scruples  =  7680  grains ; 

I  oz.  =    16  drams  =    48  scruples  =    480  grains  ; 

I  dram   =      3  scruples  =      30  grains  : 

1  scruple    =      10  grains. 

B.  APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT,  FOR  DRUGS. 

I  lb.  =  12  oz,  =  q6  drams  =  288  scruples  =  5760  grains; 
I  oz.  =    8  drams  =    24  scruples  =    480  grains; 
I  dram    =      3  scruples  =      60  grains; 
I  scruple    =      20  grains. 

C  TROY  WEIGHT,  FOR  JEWELS  AND  PRECIOUS  METALS. 

s  lb.  =  12  oz.  =  24  carats  =  240  pennyweight  (dwt.)  =  5760  grains ; 

X  oz.  =    2  carats  =    20  dwts.  =    480  grains  ; 

I  carat   =    10  dwts.  =    240  grains; 

I  dwt.  =     ?4  grains. 

II.  Measures. 

A.  LINEAR. 

S  mile  =  8  furlongs  (frigs.)  =  80  chains  =  r^7.o  rods  =  5280  feet  ;1 
z  furlong  =  10  chains  =    40  rods  =    660  feet; 

I  chain    =      4  rods  =      66  feet; 

I  rod    =      i6i  feet; 
I  chain  =  100  links  ; 

I  link  =  7.92  inches  ; 
I  3rard  =  3  feet  =  36  inches; 
I  foot  =  12  inches. 

B.  SURFACE. 
I  square  mile  —  640  acres  ; 

I  acre  =  10  square  chains  =  160  sq.  rods  =  4840  sq.  y^- 
—  431560  square  feet. 

*  1  long  ton  =  20  imperial  hundredweights  (cwt  )  =  2210  pounds. 
t  1  sea  mile  '  .^dmiralty  knot)  =  6080  feet,  or  1.1515  statute  mi'e. 


388  GEN^ERAL  TOPICS. 

C.  CAPACITY. 

I.    DRY    MEASURE. 

»  bushel  =  the  volume  of  77.627  lbs.  of  distilled  water  at  4*C.; 

I  bushel  =.  4  pecks  =  8  gallons  =  32  quarts  =  2150.4  cubic  inches; 

I  peck    =  2  gallons  =    8  quarts  =    537.6      **  " 

I  gallon     =    4  quarts  =    268.8      "         *' 

I  quart   =      67.2      "         ** 

2.    LIQUID   MEASURE. 

I  pallon  =  the  volume  of  8.3383822  lbs.  =  58,373  troy  grains  of  distilled 

water  at  4°  C;  * 
I  gallon  =  4  quarts  =  8  pints  =  32  gills  =  231  cubic  inches; 
I  quart    =  2  pints  —    8  gills  =    57.75  "  '* 

I  pint    =    4  gills  =    28.88  "  " 

Metric  System  of  Weights  and  Measures. 

I.  LINEAR   MEASURES. 
X  meter  (m)  =  10  decimeters  (dm)=  too  centimeters  (cm)  =  1000  millimetei* 
(mm)  =  .1  decameters  (Dm)  =  .01  Hectometer  (Hm)  =  .001  Kilometo 
(Km)  =  .0001   Myriameler  (Mm). 

I  Mm  =  10  Km  =  100  Hm  =  1000  Dm  =  10,000  m; 
I  Km  =    10  Hm  =    100  Dm  =    1,000  m; 
I  Hm  =      10  Dm  =       100  m; 
I  Dm  =        10  m; 
s  m  =s  10  dm  =:  100  cm  =  1000  mm  ; 
1  dm  =    10  cm  =    100  mm; 
I  cm  =      10  mm. 

a.  SURFACE  MEASURES. 
1  Are  (a)  =  100  square  meters  (sq.  m.)  =  .01  hectare  (haj  ; 
I  Are  =  I  sq.  Dm.  =  100  square  m  ; 
I  sq.  Km  =  100  Ha  =  10,000  A  =  1,000,000  sq.  m  J 
I  Ha  =       100  A  =       10,000  sq.  m  ; 
I  A  =  100  sq.  m. 

3.  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 
I  titer  (l)  =  T  cubic  decimeter  (cdm)  =  1,000  cubic  centimeters  (c.  c.)  s 
o.ooi  cubic  meter  (cbm)  =  10  deciliters  (dl)  =  too  centiliters  (cl)  =  .o» 
hectoliter  (hi). 

I  HI  =  10  Dl  =  100  1  =  1,000  dl  =  10,000  cl ; 
I  Dl  =    10  1  =     100  dl  =    1,000  cl ; 

I  1  =  10  dl  =  lOO  Cm 

4.  WEIGHTS. 

f  kilogram  (kg)  =  100  decagrams  (Dg)  =  1000  grams  (g); 
I  gram  =  10  decigrams  (a^)  —  100  centigrams  (eg)  =  1,000  milligrams  (mgK 
I  ton  =  1000  Kg  =  100,000  Dg  =  1,000,000  g  ; 
100  Kg  =    10,000  Dg  =      100,000  g  j 
I  Kg  =        100  Dg  =         1,000  g. 

*  I  Imperial  gallon  =  277.274  cub.  inches,  or  .16046  cub.  foot;  it  equals 
1.20032,  or  very  nearly  ij  I'.  S.  liquid  gallons,  i  cub.  foot  =  1728  cub. 
inches  =  7.48  U.  S,  liquid  gallons  =  6.43  U.  S.  dry  gallons  =  6.23  Imperial 


WEIGHTS    \ND   AIEASURES. 


389 


Conversion  of  U.  S.  Weights  and  Measures  to  Metric^ 
and  vice  versa. 


Inches  to 

Millimeters. 

»:  -=  25.4001 

Meter  to 

Inches. 

I  —    39-3700 


Sq. Inches  to 
Sq.  Ceiuiur. 
6.452 

Sq.  Centime, 
to  sq.  in. 

.1550 


LINEAR. 

Feet  to  Meters.     Yards  to  Meters. 
.3048  .9144 

Meter  to  Feet.       Meter  to  Yards. 
3.2808  X.0936 


SQUARE. 


Sq.  Feet  to  Sq. 

Decimeters. 
9.290 

Sq.  Meters 
to  Sq.  Feet. 
10.764 


Square  Yards  to 

Square  Meters. 

.836 

Square  Meters 

to  Square  Yards. 

1.196 


Miles  to 

Kilometers. 

1.6094 

Kilometer  to 
Miles. 
.6214 


Acres  to 

Hectares. 
.4047 

Hectares  to 
Acres. 
2.471 


CUBIC. 


Cubic  In.  to 
Cu.  Cenlmr. 

:  =  16  387 

Cu.  Centmrs 
to  Cubic  In. 
I  ==.       .0610 


Cubic  Feet  to 

Cubic  Meters. 
.0283 

Cu.  Decimeters 
to  Cubic  Inches. 
61.023 


Cubic  Yards  to 

Cubic  Meters. 

.765 

Cubic  Meters  to 
Cubic  Feet. 

35-314 


Bushels  to 
Hectoliters. 

.3524 

Cubic  Meters  to 

Cubic  Yards. 

i.308 


Fluid  Drams 


CAPACITY. 


Fluid  Ounces  to 


'°mcteS"'*"  Cubic  Centimeter.  Qu^'-ts  to  Liters.  Gallons  to  Litera. 
1=      3.70  29.57  .9464  3.7854 


Cu.  Centi- 
meters to 
Fluid  Drams. 


I  =        .27 


Centiliters  to 
Fluid  Ounces. 

.338 


Liters       Decaliters  to     Hectoliters 
to  Quarts.        Gallons.         to  Bushels. 


1.0567  2.6417 


2.8377 


WEIGHT. 


Grains  to 
Millifirams. 

I  =    64.7989 

Milligframs 
to  Grains. 

1=       .01543 

Ouintals  to 
Pounds  .-\v. 
—       220.46 


Avoirdupois 
Ounces  to  Grams. 

28.3495 

Kilograms  to 
Grains. 
15432.36 


Avoirdupois 
Pounds  to  Kilo- 
Grams. 

.4536 

Hectog-rams  to 
Ounces  Av. 

3.5274 


Milliers  or  Tonnes 
to  Pounds  Av. 
2204.6 


Troy  Ounces 
to  Grams. 
31-1035 

Kilograms  to 

Pounds  Av. 

2.2046 

Kilograms  to 

Ounces  Troy. 

32.1507 


390 


GENERAL  TOPICS. 


KILOGRAMS   CONVERTED  INTO   POUNDS 
AVOIRDUPOIS. 


Kilos, 

o 

I 

2 

3 
.066 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

o.o 

.ooo 

.022 

.044 

.088 

.110 

.132 

■154 

.176 

.194 

.1 

.220 

•243 

.265 

.287 

•309 

•331 

.353 

•375 

•397 

.419 

.2 

.441 

•463 

.485 

■  507 

•529 

•551 

•573 

•595 

.617 

•639 

•3 

.661 

•6S3 

•705 

.728 

•750 

.772 

•794 

.816 

.838 

.860 

•4 

.882 

.904 

.926 

•94« 

.970 

.992 

1. 014 

1.036 

1.058 

1.080 

•5 

I.  102 

I.  124 

1. 146 

1. 168 

1. 190 

1. 213 

1-235 

1.257 

T.279 

1-301 

.6 

1.323 

1-345 

1.367 

1-389 

1 .411 

I  433 

1-455 

1-477 

1.499 

1. 521 

•7 

1-543 

1-565 

1-587 

1.609 

1. 631 

1-653 

1 .676 

1.698 

1.720 

1.742 

.8 

I   764 

1.786 

1.808 

1.830 

1.852 

1.874 

1.896 

1. 918 

r.940 

1 .962 

•9 

I  984 

2.006 

2.028 

2.050 

2.072 

2.094 

2. 116 

2.138 

2. 161 

2  183 

POUNDS   CONVERTED   INTO   KILOGRAMS 

Pounds. 

0 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

0.0 

.000 

.005 

.o<^ 

.014 

.018 

.023 

027 

.032 

.036 

.041 

I 

.045 

050 

.054 

059 

.064 

.068 

073 

-077 

082 

.086 

2 

.091 

095 

•  iOO 

104 

.109 

.113 

118 

.122 

127 

132 

3 

.136 

141 

.145 

150 

•154 

.159 

163 

.168 

172 

.177 

4 

.181 

'8b 

.191 

J  95 

.200 

.204 

209 

.213 

218 

.222 

5 

.227 

231 

.236 

240 

•245 

.249 

254 

-259 

263 

.268 

6 

.272 

277 

.281 

286 

.290 

•295 

299 

■304 

308 

•313 

7 

.3.8 

3'2 

•  327 

331 

•3.3t) 

•  340 

345 

-349 

354 

.358 

8 

•3^3 

.367 

•371 

376 

.381 

.386 

390 

•395 

399 

.404 

•9 

.408 

•413 

.417 

.422 

.426 

.431 

435 

.440 

•445 

■449 

INCHES   REDUCED   TO   DECIMALS   OF    A   FOOT. 

(Trautvvine.) 


Ins. 

Foot. 

.0026 
.0052 

Ins. 

Foot. 

Ins. 

Foot. 

.1667 
.2083 

Ins. 

6 
6^ 

Foot. 

.5000 
-5417 

Ins. 

Foot. 

3V 

■?^ 

.0833 
.0938 

2 

10 
^0% 

•8333 
.8750 

i 

.0104 
.0208 

'i 

.1042 
.1146 

Ih 

.2500 
,2917 

?^ 

.5833 
.6250 

II 

.9167 
•9583 

.0313 
.0417 
.0521 
.0625 

1% 

.1250 

•1354 
.1458 

-1563 

-3333 
•  3750 
.4167 
.4583 

8 
8^ 

.6667 
.7083 
.7500 
.7917 

12 

I .0000 

^ 

.0729 

OUNCES  REDUCED  TO  DECIMALS  OF  A  POUND. 


I  oz.  = 

.06  lb 

2     *'     = 

•^3    '' 

3    *!   = 

.19 

"*  ..  = 

.25 

5    "   = 

•31   " 

6    "   = 

.38   " 

I    W   = 

•43    " 

8    "   = 

•50    " 

9  OZ. 

= 

S6  1b. 

xo   " 

= 

.63   " 

II   " 

= 

.69  " 

12     " 

= 

•75    '! 

13  " 

:= 

.81    " 

14  " 

— 

.88   " 

15  " 

= 

•94   " 

16  " 

= 

I 

WEIGHTS   AND  MEASURES.  391 

WEIGHT   AND    MEASURE    CONVERSION    TABLE. 


o  d 

«  «• 

ui 

<"    . 

in 
V 

09 

-G  a 

5^ 

w5 

0  V 

0 

■X.  jj 

0  4; 

-  a 

tn  0 

S  0 

2S 

cr.     • 

'c 

^5 

:=;  0 

ub 

I  .609 

°2 

ii^ 

0   ^ 

^ 

S 

.0^94 

•305 

3.28 

.621 

i 

.868 

I 

25-4 

1-153 

2 

50.8 

.0787 

.610 

6.56 

3.219 

1-243 

I -735 

2  .306 

3 

76.2 

.1181 

.914 

9.84 

4.828 

1.864 

2  603 

3  458 

4 

101 .6 

•1575 

I  .219 

13.12 

6-437 

2.486 

3-470 

4.611 

5 

127.0 

.  1069 

1-524 

16.40 

8.047 

3-107 

4-338 

5-764 

6 

152.4 

.2362 

1.829 

19.69 

9.656 

3-728 

5  205 

6.917 

7 

177.8 

.2756 

2.134 

22.97 

11.265 

4-350 

6.073 

8.070 

8 

20;.  2 

•3150 

2.438 

26  25 

12.875 

4.971 

6.940 

9.222 

9 

228.6 

•3543 

2-743 

29-53 

14.484 

5-593 

7.808 

10.375 

^ 

0    Cfl 

tr.  <-• 

(A 

(fl 

0  i-i 

^^ 

• 

0 

■^J  1-1 

u  <u 

u 

is  (0 

SB 

*j   V 

4J    1) 

0   U 

te-<  cr 

^1 

.  3 

J£  0 

:r  3 

OCQ 

.  0* 

cr° 

u  W 

y^ 

3  3 

=  ^ 

(J  0 

C/3 

10.76 

< 
-405 

2.47 

.028 

u2 

CQ 

X 

I 

.0929 

35-3 

•35 

2.84 

2 

.1858 

21-53 

.809 

4.94 

-057 

70.6 

•70 

5.68 

3 

.2787 

32.29 

1.214 

7.41 

.085 

105.9 

1 .06 

8.51 

4 

.3716 

43.06 

1. 019 

9.88 

•  113 

141.3 

1. 41 

11-35 

5 

-4645 

53.82 

2.024 

12.  36 

.142 

176.6 

1.76 

14-19 

6 

•5574 

64.58 

2.428 

14.83 

.170 

211. Q 

2. 1 1 

17-03 

7 

.6503 

75 -.35 

2.833 

17.30 

.198 

247.2 

2.47 

19.86 

8 

.7432 

86.11 

3.238 

19-77 

.226 

282     5 

2.82 

II. -JO 

9 

.8361 

96.88 

3.642 

22  .24 

-255 

3i7-» 

3-'7 

25-54 

0 

•o 

T3    -J 

3 

E 

0 

0    . 

'-'  en 

3'-l 

0  « 
*-•  X. 
in  rt 
^   3 

0 

en 
0  C 

*-   3 

0    . 

Cfl  3 

^  Z 

U 

2 «; 

3D-. 

fc 

.338 

a 
-95 

1.06 

0 

3-79 

.26 

0 
28.3 

0 

I 

29.6 

.063 

2 

59  I 

.676 

1 

89 

2 .  II 

7-57 

-53 

56.7 

-125 

3 

88.7 

1. 014 

2 

84 

3-17 

11.36 

-79 

85.1 

.188 

4 

118.3 

1-352 

3 

79 

4-23 

1514 

1.06 

113-4 

.250 

5 

147.9 

1.690 

4 

73 

5-28 

18.92 

1.32 

141. 8 

-313 

6 

177-4 

2.028 

5 

68 

6.34 

22.71 

1-59 

170. 1 

-375 

7 

207.0 

2.366 

6 

62 

7-40 

26.50 

1.85 

198.5 

■438 

8 

236.6 

2.704 

7 

57 

8-45 

30.28 

2. II 

226.8 

.500 

9 

266.1 

3.042 

8 

52 

9.51 

34-07 

2.38 

255-1 

.563 

392  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

TABLE    OF   RECIPROCALS   OF   NUMBERS. 

The   reciprocal  of  a  number  is  the  quantity  obtained  by- 
dividing  one  by  that  number. 


No. 

Recip- 
rocal. 

No. 

Recip- 
rocal. 

No. 

Recip- 
rocal. 

No, 

Recip- 
rocal. 

I 

1. 00000 

26 

.03846 

51 

.01961 

76 

,01316 

2 

0.50000 

27 

.03704 

52 

.01023 

77 

,01299 

3 

•33333 

28 

03571 

53 

.01887 

78 

,01282 

4 

.25000 

29 

.03448 

54 

.01852 

79 

,01266 

5 

.20000 

30 

•03333 

55 

.01818 

80 

.01250 

6 

.16667 

31 

,03226 

56 

.01786 

8t 

.01235 

7 

.14286 

32 

.03125 

57 

.01754 

82 

.01220 

8 

, 12500 

33 

.03030 

53 

.01724 

83 

.01205 

9 

.mil 

34 

.02941 

59 

.01605 

81 

,01190 

lO 

,10000 

35 

.02857 

60 

.01667 

85 

,01176 

II 

.09091 

36 

.02778 

61 

.01639 

86 

.01163 

12 

•08333 

37 

.02703 

62 

.01613 

87 

,01149 

13 

.07692 

38 

.02632 

63 

.01587 

83 

.01136 

M 

•07143 

39 

•02564 

64 

.01563 

89 

.01124 

15 

.06667 

40 

.03500 

65 

.01538 

90 

.01111 

16 

.06250 

41 

.02439 

66 

.01515 

91 

.01099 

17 

.05882 

42 

.02381 

67 

.01493 

92 

.01087 

18 

•05556 

43 

.02326 

68 

.01471 

93 

.01075 

19 

.05263 

44 

,02273 

69 

,01449 

94 

.01064 

20 

.05000 

45 

.02222 

70 

..01429 

95 

.01053 

21 

.04762 

46 

.02174 

71 

,01408 

96 

.01042 

22 

■04545 

47 

.02128 

72 

.01389 

97 

.01031 

23 

.04348 

48 

.02083 

73 

,01370 

98 

.01020 

■M 

.04167 

49 

.02041 

74 

,01351 

99 

.01010 

25 

.04000 

50 

.02000 

75 

•01333 

100 

.01000 

WEIGHTS    AND    MEASUREiS. 


o9J 


C031PARIS0XS    OF    FAHRENHEIT,    CENTIGRADE 
(CELSIUS),     AND     REAUMUR    THERM03IETER 

SCALES.  ' 


Fahren- 

Centi- 

1 

Fahren- 

Centi- 

1 

heit. 

grade. 

Reaumur. 

heit. 

1 

grade. 

Reaumur. 

-|-2I2 

+  ioa 

+  80 

!    +158 

+70 

+56 

211 

99-44 

79-56 

157 

69.44 

55  56 

2IO 

98.89 

79.11 

156 

68.89 

55." 

209 

98.33 

78.67 

155 

68.33 

54.67 

208 

97 .  73 

78.22 

154 

67.78 

54-22 

207 

97  -^2 

77.78 

153 

67.22 

53-78 

206 

96.67 

77-33 

152 

66.67 

53-33 

205 

96.11 

76.89 

151 

66.11 

52  89 

204 

95-55 

76.44 

150 

65.55 

52.44 

203 

95 

76 

14Q 

65 

52 

202 

94  44 

75-56 

148 

64.44 

5156 

201 

93  89 

75-11 

147 

63.89 

51.11 

200 

93  3^ 

74  67 

146 

63  33 

50.67 

igg 

92.78 

74.22 

145 

62.78 

50.22 

193 

02.22 

73.-S 

144 

62.22 

49.78 

197 

91.67 

73.33 

14J 

61   67 

49  33 

196 

01  .  T  I 

72  89 

142 

61 .11 

48.89 

195 

90-55 

7244 

T41 

60.55 

48.44 

194 

Qu 

72 

140 

60 

48 

193 

89.44 

71-56 

139 

59.44 

47.56 

192 

88.89 

71.11 

138 

58.89 

47.11 

lOI 

88-33 

70.67 

137 

58.33 

40.67 

190 

S7.78 

70.22 

136 

57  78 

46.22 

I  So 

87.22 

69.78 

135 

57.52 

45-78 

1S8 

86.67 

69.33 

134 

56.67 

45-33 

187 

86.11 

68.89 

133 

56.11 

44.89 

186 

85-55 

68  44 

132 

55.55 

44-44 

185 

85 

68 

131 

55 

44 

184 

84.44 

67.56 

130 

54.44 

43-56 

183 

8^.89 

67.11 

129 

53.89 

43.11 

182 

83-33 

66.67 

128 

53.33 

42.67 

18. 

82.78 

66.22 

127 

52-78 

42.22 

i8q 

82.22 

65-78 

126 

52.22 

41   78 

179 

81.67 

65-33 

125 

51.67 

41.33 

178 

81.11 

64.89 

124 

ci  .11 

40.89 

177 

80.55 

64.44 

123 

50.55 

40.44 

176 

80 

64 

122 

50 

40 

175 

70.44 

63.56 

121 

49.44 

.39  56 

'7* 

78  89 

63 . 1 1 

120 

48.89 

3.).  1 1 

173 

78.33 

62.67 

"9 

48.33 

38.67 

172 

77- -.8 

62.22 

118 

47.78 

38.22 

171 

77.22 

61.78 

1.7 

47.22 

37.78 

170 

76.67 

6t.,3 

116 

46.67 

37^3 

169 

76. 1 1 

60.89 

115 

46. 11 

36.89 

168 

75  55 

60.44 

114 

45.55 

36 -44 

167 

75 

60 

"3 

45 

36 

166 

74  44 

59.56 

1 12 

44.44 

35  56 

165 

73  89 

50 .  1  r 

III 

43  89 

35" 

164 

72.33 

5S  67 

110 

43.3^ 

34.67 

163 

72  78 

58.22 

10; 

4'.78 

34  22 

162 

71 .22 

57.78 

10-8 

4.-.22 

3-7 

i6t 

71.67 

57.33 

,07 

41     67 

33-3? 

160 

71.11 

56.89 

106 

41.11 

32  89 

^39 

70.55 

56.44 

105 

40  55 

32.44 

39-4 


GKNEK'AL    ToriCS- 


COMPARISONS    OF    FAHRENHEIT,    CENTIGRADE 
(CELSIUS),    AND     REAUMUR    THERMOMETER 

SCALES.  —  Continued. 


Fahren- 
heit. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Reaumur. 

Fah'-en- 
heit. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Reaumur. 

-fio4 

+40 

+32     ^ 

+50 

-fio 

+8 

103 

39-44 

31 -.56 

49 

y-44 

7.56 

102 

38.89 

3T.11 

48 

8.89 

7. II 

101 

38-33 

30.67 

47 

8.33 

6.67 

100 

37-78 

30.22 

46 

7-78 

6.22 

99 

37.22 

20.78 

45 

7.22 

5-78 

98 

36.67 

2Q-33 

44 

6.67 

5-33 

97 

36.  II 

28.89 

43 

6. II 

4.89 

96 

35-55 

28.44 

42 

5-55 

4-44 

95 

35 

28 

4» 

5 

4 

94 

34-44 

27.56 

40 

4-44 

3-56 

93 

33-89 

27.11 

39 

3-89 

3-11 

92 

33-33 

26.67 

38 

3-33 

2.67 

91 

32  78 

26.22 

37 

2.78 

2.22 

90 

3  -'  -  22 

25.78 

36 

2.22 

1.78 

89 

31  67 

25-33 

35 

1.67 

1-33 

88 

31. II 

24.89 

34 

i.ii 

0.89 

87 

jO-SS 

24.44 

33 

0-55 

0.44 

86 

30 

24 

32 

0 

0 

85 

29.44 

23  -  .56 

31 

-0.55 

-0.44 

84 

2'*.8g 

23.11 

30 

I.II 

0.89 

83 

28.33 

2^    67 

29 

1.67 

1-.3 

C2 

27.78 

22    22 

28 

2.22 

1.78 

81 

27  22 

21     78 

27 

2.78 

2.22 

80 

26.67 

21-33 

26 

3-33 

2.67 

11 

26.11 

20. 8q 

25 

3-89 

3  11 

78 

25  55 

20.44 

24 

4.44 

3.56 

77 

25 

20 

23 

5 

4 

76 

24.44 

19.56 

22 

5-55 

4-44 

75 

23.89 

iq.  11 

21 

6. II 

4.89 

74 

23-33 

18.67 

20 

6.67 

5-33 

73 

22.78 

18.22 

19 

7.22 

5.78 

72 

22.22 

17.78 

18 

7.78 

6.22 

71 

21   67 

17-33 

17 

8  33 

6.67 

70 

21 .11 

16  89 

16 

8. 89 

7.11 

69 

20-55 

16.44 

15 

9-44 

7-56 

68 

20 

16 

14 

10 

8 

67 

19.44 

15-56 

13 

10.55 

8.44 

66 

18.89 

15. II 

12 

II. II 

8.89 

65 

18-3? 

14.67 

II 

11.67 

9-33 

64 

17.78 

14.22 

10 

12.22 

9.78 

63 

17.22 

13-78 

9 

12.78 

ID    22 

62 

16.67 

13-33 

8 

13-33 

10.67 

6i 

16. II 

12.89 

7 

13.89 

II. II 

60 

15  55 

12.44 

6 

14.44 

11.56 

59 

15 

12 

5 

15.00 

12 

58 

14.44 

11.56 

4 

15-55 

12.44 

57 

iJ-89 

II. II 

3 

16.1 1 

12.89 

56 

13-33 

10.67 

2 

16.67 

13-33 

55 

12.78 

10.22 

I 

17.22 

13-78 

54 

12  22 

9.78 

0 

17.78 

14.22 

53 

T1.67 

9-33 

—  I 

18.33 

14.67 

52 

II.  II 

8  89 

2 

18.89 

»5   11 

51 

10.55 

8.44 

3 

19  44 

15-56 

WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 


395 


COMPARISONS    OF    FAHRFNHEtT,    CENTIGRADE 

(CELSIVS),    AND     REAUMUR    THERMOMETER 

SCAIjJ£.'^— Continued. 


Fahren- 
heit. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Reaumur. 

F.hren- 
heit. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Reaumur. 

-4 

—  20 

-16 

-23 

-30-55 

-24.44 

5 

20-55 

16.44 

24 

31. II 

24.89 

6 

21.  II 

16.89 

25 

31  67 

25-33 

7 

21  .67 

1733 

26 

32.22 

25-7'^ 

8 

22.22 

17.78 

27 

32-7& 

26.22 

c 

22.78 

18.22 

28 

33-33 

26.67 

to 

23-33 

18.67 

29 

33 --9 

27.  II 

II 

23.89 

19. II 

:-io 

34. -'V 

27.56 

T2 

24.^4 

19.56 

31 

35 

28 

3 

-5 

20 

32 

35-55 

28.44 

14 

25-55 

20.44 

33 

36.11 

28.89 

15 

26. 11 

20.89 

34 

36.67 

29 -33 

i6 

26.67 

21.33 

35 

37.22 

29.78 

17 

27.22 

21.78 

3^ 

37-7'? 

30.22 

i8 

27.78 

22  22 

37 

38-3, 

30.67 

19 

28.33 

22 .67 

38 

38.80 

31. II 

ao 

28.89 

23. 11 

39 

39-44 

?.i.56 

21 

29.44 

23.56 

40 

40 

3a. 00 

22 

30 

24 

Formula  for  Converting  Degrees  Centigrade  to  Fahrenheit,  and 
vice  versa : 

•9"' 


„.  F. = (Mfinj-n  c. 

\        9         / 

For  Degrees  Reaumur,  substitute  4   for  the  figure  5  in  tht' 
preceding  formulas. 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


GOVEIIXMENT   LAXD    3IEASURES. 

In  the  system  of  government  survey,  lines  running  north 
and  south  are  drawn  parallel  to  a  fixed  line  (principal  me- 
ridian) at  a  distance  of  six  miles  apart  ;  these  are  called 
range  lines.  At  right  angles  with  these,  other  parallel  lines 
{town  lines)  are  drawn,  which  then  run  east  and  west.  The 
two  sets  of  lines  form  squares  containing  36  square  miles 
each,  called  toivnships.  A  certain  number  of  townships 
form  a  county.  Each  square  mile  of  a  township  is  called  a 
section,  containing  640  acres,  and  these  are  numbered  regu- 
larly I  to  36,  commencing  at  the  northeast  corner,  as  shown 
in  the  acccnnpanying  diagram.  Section  16  in  each  township 
is  set  apart  for  school  purposes. 

Sections  are  divided  bylines  running  north  and  south, 
and  east  and  west,  into  quartej-  sections,  designated  as  the 
northeast  quarter,  northwest  quarter,  southwest  quarter, 
and  south-east  quarter  of  the  section.  These  quarters  con- 
tain 160  acres  of  land  each,  and  are  again  divided  into 
quarters,  each  containing  forty  acres,  which  is  the  smallest 
sub-division  recognized  in  government  survey.  Lands  are 
usually  sold  in  tracts  of  forty  acres,  or  a  multiple  thereof, 
except  in  case  of  land  bordering  on  lakes,  which  are  frac- 
tional sections  and  may  contain  more  or  less  than  forty 
acres.      These  are  called  governmetit  lots. 


TOWNSHIP. 


SECTION. 


6 
7 

5 
8 

'7 
20 

4 
9 
16 
21 

3 
10 

15 

22 

2 
II 

14 
23 

I 
12 

13 

18 

19 

24 

30 

29 
32 

28 

27 

26 
35 

25 

36 

31 

33 

34 

N.  W. 
Quarter. 

NW14 
of 

NEM 

NE1.4 

of 
NEM 

SE14 
of 

NEi.i 

SW14 
of 

NE14 

S.  W. 
Quarter. 

S.  E. 
Quarter. 

The  description  of  a  40-acre  lot  would  then,  for  example, 
read  as  follows  :  The  northeast  quarter  of  the  northeast 
quarter  of  section  i  in  township  24  north,  range  7  west. 


WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES.  397 

TO  MEASURE  CORN  ON  THE  COB  IN  CRIBS 

(Waring.) 

When  the  Crib  is  Equilateral. 

Rule.  —  Multiply  the  length  in  inches  by  the  breadth  in 
inches,  and  that  again  by  the  height  in  inches,  and  divide  the 
product  by  274S  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a  heaped  bushel), 
and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  bushels  of  ears.  Take 
two  thirds  of  the  quotient  for  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled 
corn. 

Exa7nph\  —  Required  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled  corn 
contained  in  a  crib  of  ears,  15  ft.  long  by  5  ft.  wide  and  10  ft. 
high. 

Solution:  iSo  in.  (length)  X  60  in.  (width)  X  120  in.  (height) 
=  1,296,000  -T-  2748  =  471.6  heaped  bushels,  two  thirds  of  which 
is  314.6  bushels,  shelled. 

When  the  Crib  is  Flared  at  the  Sides. 

Multiply  half  the  sum  of  the  top  and  bottom  widths  in  inches 
by  the  perpendicular  height  in  inches,  and  that  again  by  the 
length  in  inches,  and  divide  the  product  by  274S;  the  quotient 
will  be  the  number  of  heaped  bushels  of  cars.  Take  two- 
thirds  of  the  quotient  for  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelledcorn, 

HAY  AND  STIIAAV  IN  3IOWS  OR  STACKS. 

Four  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  of  hay  is  roughly  esti- 
mated as  a  ton,  but  there  is  great  variation  in  the  ratio  of 
weight  to  volume,  ranging  from  less  than  400  to  500  cu.  fi.^ 
according  to  the  kind  of  hay,  time  of  cutting,  and  height  of 
mow  or  stack.  In  general,  the  finer  the  stalk  of  the  plart.  and 
the  larger  the  mow,  the  heavier  the  hay;  also,  of  course,  the 
more  closely  packed  in  putting  away,  and  the  nearer  the 
bottom  of  the  mow  the  heavier.  Grass  allowed  to  stand  till 
nearly  ripe  before  cutting  will  be  the  lighter;  loose  hay  in 
loft  will  take  toward  500  cubic  feet  to  the  ton;  in  case  of 
timothy  hay  about  420,  and  in  case  of  clover  hay,  about  500 
cuiiic  feet  will  make  a  ton.  One  ton  of  straw  will  measure 
600-1000  cubic  feet,  according  to  kind  of  straw  and  length  of 
lime  in  stack  or  mow.  The  longer  the  time  in  stack,  the 
smaller  the  number  of  cubic  feet  per  ton. 

In  estimating  by  measurement,  multiply  together  the  fig- 
ures representing  the  length,  w'idih,  and   height  of  hay,  and 


398 


GENERAL  TOPICS. 


divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  feet  in  a  ton.  For  ex- 
ample, if  the  hay  is  40  ft.  long,  16  ft.  wide,  and  18  ft  from 
the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  mow,  and  the  bulk  agreed  is 
450  cub.  ft.  to  the  ton,  the  mow  will  contain  40  X  16  X  18. 
which  equals  11,520  cub.  ft.;  11,520  divided  by  450  equals 
25.6,  or  2sl  tons. 

The  following   table   is   from  the  American  Agriculturisl 

Table  for  Finding  llie  A^alue  of  Hay. 


tn 

c 

3 

$4 

$5 

$6 

$7 

$8 

$9 

$10 

$11 

a. 

50 

0. 10 

0.13 

0.15 

0.18 

0.20 

0.23 

0.25 

0.28 

70 

0. 14 

0.18 

0.21 

0.25 

0.28 

0.32 

0-35 

0-39 

90 

0.18 

0.23 

0.27 

0.32 

0.36 

0.41 

0.45 

0.50 

100 

0.20 

0.25 

0.30 

0.35 

0.40 

0.45 

0.50 

0-55 

300 

0.60 

0.75 

0.90 

10s 

1.20 

»-35 

1.50 

1.65 

400 

0.80 

1. 00 

1.20 

1.40 

1.60 

1.80 

2.00 

2.20 

Soo 

r.oo 

1-25 

1.50 

1-75 

2.00 

2.25 

2.50 

2  75 

700 

1.40 

1.75 

2.10 

2-45 

2.80 

3-15 

3-50 

3  8s 

QOO 

1.80 

2.25 

2.70 

3-»5 

3.60 

4 -05 

4.50 

4-95 

1000 
12QO 

2.00 
2.40 

2.50 
3.00 

3.00 
3.60 

3-50 
4.20 

4.00 
4.80 

4-5° 
5.40 

5.00 
6.00 

5-50 
6  60 

1500 
1600 

3.00 
3.20 

3-75 
4.00 

4.50 
4.80 

5-25 
5.60 

6.00 
6. 40 

6.75 
7  20 

7.50 
8.00 

8.25 
8.80 

T7OO 
1800 

igco 

3-40 
3.60 
3.80 

4-25 
4-50 
4-75 

5.10 
5-40 
5-70 

5-95 
6.30 
6.65 

6.80 
7.20 
7.60 

7.65 
8.10 
8.55 

8.50 
9.00 

9  50 

9-35 
9.90 
10.45 

2000 

4.00 

5.00 

6.00 

7.00 

8.00 

9.00 

10.00 

II  .00 

•a 

c 

D 

$12 

$13 

$14 

$X5 

$16 

$17 

$18 

IX 

50 
70 

o.:5o 

0.42 

0-33 
0.46 

0.35 
0.49 

0.38 
0.53 

0.40 
0.56 

0.43 
0.60 

0.45 
0.63 

90 
100 

0-54 
0.60 

0-59 
0.65 

0.63 
0.70 

0.68 
0.7s 

0.72 
0.80 

0.77 
0.85 

0.81 
0.90 

300 
400 

1.80 
2  40 

1-95 
2.60 

2.10 

2.80 

2.25 
3.00 

2,40 
3.20 

■  2.55 
3  40 

2.70 
3.60 

500 

3.00 

3-25 

3-50 

3-75 

4.00 

4-25 

4-50 

700 
900 

4.20 
5  40 

4-55 
5-85 

4.90 
6.30 

5-25 
6.75 

5.60 
7.20 

5  95 
7.65 

6.30 
8.10 

1000 

6.00 

6.50 

7.00 

7-50 

8.00 

8.50 

9  00 

1200 

7.20 

7.80 

8.40 

9.00 

9.60 

10.20 

10.83 

1500 
]6co 

9.00 
9.60 

9.75 
10.40 

10.50 
1 1 .20 

11.25 
12.00 

12.00 
12.80 

12.75 
13.60 

13-50 
14.40 

1700 
1800 

I0.20 
10.80 

11.05 
II  .70 

11.90 
12.60 

12.75 
13-50 

13.60 
14.40 

14.45 
15  30 

15-30 

16. 2Q 

igoo 

I  I  .40 

'2-35 

»3-.30 

14.25 

15.20 

16.15 

17. TO 

2000 

12.00 

13.00 

14.00 

15.00 

16.00 

17.00 

18.00 

WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 


399 


Annual.  The  price  per  ton  of  2000  lbs.  being  known,  it  is  easy 
to  find  the  value  of  any  fraction  of  a  ton  at  $4  to  $18  per  ton 
If  a  farmer  has  1565  lbs  of  hay  on  his  wagon,  and  the  dealer 
has  bought  it  at  $7  per  ton,  he  finds  by  looking  across  the 
table  from  1500  lbs.  to  the  column  at  the  top  of  which  is  $7, 
that  the  value  of  1500  lbs.  at  $7  is  $5.25,  the  value  of  6olbs. 
21  cents,  and  the  value  of  5  lbs.  2  cents,  making  a  total  of 
$5.48. 

To  find  the  value  of  any  fraction  of  a  ton  at  $7.40,  $7.60, 
$7.80,  etc.,  find  the  value  at  $7  and  add  to  it  one  tenth  the 
value  at  $4,  $6,  $8,  etc. 

STRENGTH    OF   HEMP   ROPES. 

Hemp  rope,  i  in.  in  circumference,  is  calculated  to  sus- 
tain a  weight  of  200  lbs.;  i^  in.,  450  lbs.;  2  in.,  800  lbs.; 
2^  in.,  1250  lbs.;  3  in.,  1800  lbs.;  4  in.,  3200  lbs.;  5  in.,  5000 
lbs.;  6  in.,  7200  lbs.  Hemp  is  considered  twice  as  strong 
as  manila.  and  wire  rope  twice  as  strong  as  hemp.  (  y^ear- 
book  U.  S.  Dept.  Agrir.) 

The  diameters  corresponding  to  the  circumferences  given 
are,  in  the  preceding  order:  .318,  .477,  .636,  .795,  .955, 
1.27,  1.59,  and  1. 91  inches. 

THE  STRENGTH  OF  MANILA    ANH  WIRE  ROPES. 

(Cornell  Univ.) 


Manila  Rope. 
3  strands, 
36  in.  long. 

Manila  Rope. 
4  strands, 
36  in.  long. 

Cast-steel  Wire  Rope. 
6  strands. 

Circum- 
ference. 

Breaking 
Load. 

Circum- 
ference. 

Breaking 
Load. 

Circum- 
ference. 

No.  of 
Wires  in 
Strand. 

Breaking 
Load. 

ins. 

1.625 

2.25 

2.375 

2.812 

3-1S8 

3-625 

4.375 

lbs. 

1,750 

3,680 

4,750 

5-400 

6,800 

7.635 

8.980 

11.870 

15,100 

2.850 

4.930 

11,650 

ins. 

2.82s 

3.375 

3-75 

4.25 

4.825 

5-375 

3.188 

3-125 

lbs. 

4.250 

6,050 

7.700 

11,140 

14,020 

16,550 

7.700 

7,630 

ins. 

1 .062 

r.375 

1.563 

1-595 

1.780 

1-938 

6 
19 
19 
19 
19 
19 

lbs. 

6.28s 
11.850 
12,590 
19,500 
19.150 
21.510 

4-  75 

5.125 

2 .  562 

3 -033 
4.188 

400 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


LEGAL    AVEIGHTS    OF   GRAIN,    SEEDS,  ETC. 

The  table  shows  the  number  of  pounds  per  bushel  re- 
quired by  law  or  custom,  in  the  sale  of  articles  specified,  in 
the  several  States  of  the  Union. 


Sutes. 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont , 

Massachusetts 

Rhode  Island     , 

Connecticut 

New  York   , 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania  

Delaware , 

Maryland   

District  of  Columbia.. .. 

Virj^inia 

West  Virginia , 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida , 

Alabama 

Mississippi .. 

Louisiana  

Texas. . .    

Arkansas  

Tennessee 

Kentucky 

Ohio  

Michigan 

Indiana , 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa , 

Missouri. 

Kansas  

Nebraska , 

South  Dakota , 

North  Dakota 

Montana 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Washi  ngton 

California 

Ore^-on 

Oklahoma 

United  States 


48 


47 


47 


48 


48 


U 


80 


C/2     S 


c     c 

0  u 


56    5«> 

S''  50' 

56  ... 
56  50 
5^  5o| 
^6   50 

58  ... 
56. 
56   48 
56   48 


o  o 


80 


80 


56  48 
56  50 

56... 

54'  46 
56  50 

56  48 

56  48 

56  48 

56  48 

56  50 

56... 
56  48 
56  50 
56  50 

56... 

56  50 
56  50 

56  48 
56  50 

56... 
56... 

56:  50 
56  50 

56... 
56... 
56... 

56  50 
56  50 

56 
56 

52 

56 
56 

56 


48 


52  32 

. ..  32 

52  32 

52  32 

50  32 

50  32 
...32 

57  30 

50  30 


. ..  26 
57  32 
571  32 
•••  32 
•■•I  30 
57  32 
57  32 
57  32 
57  32 
-•I  32 
•••32 
57  32 
57    32 

56  32 

57  32 
55  32 
54  32 
48  32 
57  32 
57  32 
57  32 
57  32 
57  32 
57  32 
52  3 


52 


70 


50 


50 


60 


WEIGHTS   AXD    MEASURES.  401 


1C030IERCIAL   GRADES   OF   GRAIX. 

(Minneapolis  and  Dululh  Grain  Inspection  Board.) 

I.  WHEAT. 

No.  I  Hard  Spriyig  Wheat. — No.  i  Hard  Spring  \\Tieat  must 
be  sound,  bright,  and  well  cleaned,  and  must  be  composed 
mostly  of  Hard  Scotch  Fife,  and  weigh  not  less  than  fifty-eight 
pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  I  Northern  Spring  Wheat. — No.  i  Northern  Spring  Wheat 
must  be  sound  and  well  cleaned;  it  may  be  composed  of  the 
hard  and  soft  varieties  of  spring  wheat,  but  must  contain  a 
larger  proportion  of  the  hard  varieties,  and  weigh  not  less  than 
fifty-seven  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Northern  Spring  Wheat. — No.  2  Northern  Spring 
Wheat  must  be  reasonably  sound  and  clean  and  of  good  milling 
quality,  this  grade  to  include  all  wheat  not  suitable  for  the  higher 
grades,  and  must  weigh  not  less  than  fifty-six  pounds  to  the 
measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Spring  Wheat. — No.  3  Spring  Wheat  shall  comprise  all 
inferior,  shrunken  spring  wheat,  weighing  not  less  than  fifty-four 
pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Spring  Wheat. — No.  4  Spring  Wheat  shall  include  all 
inferior  spring  wheat  that  is  badly  shrunken  or  damaged,  and 
must  weigh  not  less  than  forty-nine  pounds  to  the  measured 
bushel. 

Rejected  Spring  Wheat. — Rejected  Spring  Wheat  shall  include 
all  spring  wheat  grown,  badly  bleached,  or  for  any  other  cause 
unfit  for  No.  4  Wheat. 

Note. — Hard,  flinty  wheat  of  good  color,  containing  no 
appreciable  admixture  of  soft  wheat,  may  be  admitted  into  the 
grades  of  No.  2  Northern  Spring  and  No.  3  Northern  Spring 
Wheat,  provided  weight  of  the  same  is  not  more  than  one  pound 
less  than  the  minimum  test  weight  required  by  the  existing  rules 
for  said  grades,  and  provided  further  that  such  wheat  is  in  all 
other  respects  qualified  for  admission  into  such  grades. 


402  GENERAL   TOPICS. 


Western  White  and  Red  Wheat. 

No.  I  Westerji  White. — No.  i  Western  White  shall  be  sound, 
well  cleaned,  plump,  and  composed  of  the  western  varieties  of 
white  wheat. 

No.  2  Western  White. — No.  2  Western  White  shall  be  sound, 
reasonably  clean,  and  composed  of  western  varieties  of  white 
wheat. 

No.  3  Western  White. — No.  3  Western  White  shall  be  composed 
of  all  western  white  wheat  fit  for  warehousing,  weighing  not  less 
than  fifty-four  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel,  and  not  sound 
enough  or  otherwise  unfit  for  the  higher  grades. 

Rejected  Western  White. — Rejected  Western  White  shall  com- 
prise all  western  white  wheat  fit  for  wareliousing,  but  unfit  for 
higher  grades. 

Note. — Western  Red  Wheat  and  Western  Wheat  shall  cor- 
respond in  all  respects  with  the  grades  of  Nos.  i,  2,  3,  and 
Rejected. 

Winter  Wheat. 

No.  I  White  Winter. — No.  i  WTiite  Winter  shall  be  sound, 
well  cleaned,  reasonably  p-lump,  and  composed  of  the  white 
varieties. 

No.  2  White  Winter. — No.  2  White  Winter  to  be  sound, 
reasonably  clean,  and  composed  of  the  white  varieties. 

No.  I  Red  Winter. — No.  i  Red  Winter  to  be  sound,  well  cleaned, 
reasonably  plump,  and  composed  of  the  red  varieties. 

No.  2  Red  Winter. — No.  2  Red  Winter  to  be  sound,  reason- 
ably clean,  and  composed  of  the  red  varieties. 

No.  I  Winter. — No.  i  Winter  to  be  ound,  well  cleaned, 
reasonably  plump,  and  composed  of  the  mixed  white  and  red 
winter. 

No.  2  Winter. — No.  2  Winter  to  be  sound,  clean,  and  composed 
of  the  mixed  white  and  red  winter. 

No.  3  Winter. — No.  3  Winter  shall  comprise  all  winter  wheat 
fit  for  warehousing,  weighing  not  less  than  fifty-four  pounds 
to  the  measured  bushel,  not  sound  enough  or  otherwise  unfit 
for  No.  2  of  the  other  grades. 


WEIGHTS    AXD    MEASURES.  403 

Rejected  Winter. — Rejected  Winter  fit  for  warehousing,  but 
otherwise  unfit  for  No.  3. 

Durum  (Macaroni)  Wheat. 

No.  I  Durum. — No.  i  Durum  shall  be  bright,  practically- 
sound,  and  well  cleaned,  and  be  composed  of  Durum,  com- 
monly known  as  Macaroni  Wheat. 

No.  2  Durum. — No.  2  Durum  must  be  reasonably  sound  and 
clean,  and  of  good  milling  quality.  It  shall  include  all  Durum 
Wheat  that  for  any  reason  is  not  suitable  for  No.  i  Durum. 

No.  3  Durum. — No.  3  Durum  shall  include  all  wheat  that  is 
for  any  cause  unfit  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  Durum. — No.  4  Durum  \Micat  shall  include  all  wheat 
that  is  badly  bleached  and  grown,  or  for  any  cause  unfit  for 
No.  3. 

Mixed  Wheat. 

In  case  of  any  appreciable  admixture  of  Durum,  Western, 
Winter  or  Western  White,  and  Red  \\  heat,  with  Minnesota 
Grades  of  Northern  Spring  Wheat,  or  with  each  other,  it  shall  be 
graded  according  to  the  quality  thereof,  and  classed  as  Nos.  i, 
2,  3,  etc..  Mixed  W^heat,  wiih  inspector's  notation  describing 
its  character. 

II.  CORN. 

No.  I  Yelloiv  Corn. — No.  i  Yellow  Corn  shall  be  sound, 
yellow   dry,  plump,  and  well  cleaned. 

No.  2  Yellow  Corn. — No.  2  Yellow  Corn  shall  be  three-fourths 
yellow,  dry,  reasonably  clean,  but  not  plump  enough  for  No.  i. 

No.  3  Yellow  Corn. — No.  3  Yellow  Corn  shall  be  three-fourths 
yellow,  reasonably  dry,  reasonably  clean,  but  not  sufficiently 
sound  for  No.  2. 

No.  I  White  Corn. — No.  i  White  Corn  shall  be  sound,  dry, 
plump,  and  well  cleaned. 

No.  2  White  Corn. — No.  2  AMiite  Corn  shall  be  seven-eighths 
white,  dry,  and  reasonably  clean,  but  not  ])lump  enough  for 
No.    I. 

No.  3  White  Corn. — No.  3  White  Corn  shall  be  seven-eighths 


404      '  GEKERAL  TOPICS. 

white,  reasonably  dry  and  reasonably  clean,  but  not  sufficiently 
sound  for  No.  2. 

No.  I  Corn. — No.  i  Corn  shall  be  mixed  corn  of  choice  quality, 
sound,  dry,  and  well  cleaned. 

No.  2  Corn. — No.  2  Corn  shall  be  mixed  corn,  dry,  reasonably 
clean,  but  not  good  enough  for  No.  i. 

No.  3  Corn. — No.  3  Corn  shall  be  mixed  corn,  reasonably 
dry  and  reasonably  clean,  but  not  sufficiently  sound  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  Corn. — No.  4  Corn  shall  include  all  corn  not  w-.  and  no> 
in  heating  condition  that  is  unfit  for  No.  3. 

III.  OATS. 

No.  I  White  Oats. — No.  i  White  Oats  shall  be  white,  dry, 
sweet,  sound,  clean,  and  free  from  other  grain,  and  shall  weigh 
not  less  than  thirty-two  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  White  Oats. — No.  2  White  Oats  shall  be  seven-eighths 
white,  dry,  sweet,  sound,  reasonably  clean,  and  practically  free 
from  other  grain,  and  shall  weigh  not  less  than  thirty-one  pound? 
to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  White  Oats. — No.  3  White  Oats  shall  be  seven-eighths 
white,  dry,  sweet,  sound,  reasonably  clean,  and  practically  free 
from  other  grain,  and  shall  weigh  not  less  than  twenty-nine 
pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  White  Oats. — Shall  include  all  oats  not  sufficiently 
sound  and  clean  for  No.  3  White  Oats,  and  shall  weigh  not  less 
than  twenty-five  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Yellow  Oats. — The  grades  of  Nos.  1,2,  and  3  Yellow  Oats  shall 
correspond  with  the  grades  of  Nos.  i,  2,  and  3  White  Oats, 
excepting  that  they  shall  be  of  the  yellow  varieties. 

No.  I  Oats. — No.  I  Oats  shall  be  dry,  sweet,  sound,  clean, 
and  free  from  other  grain,  and  shall  weigh  not  less  than  thirty- 
two  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Oats. — No.  2  Oats  shall  be  dry,  sweet,  sound,  reasonably 
clean,  and  practically  free  from  other  grain,  and  shall  weigh  not 
less*  than  thirty-one  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Oats. — No.  3  Oats  shall  be  all  oats  that  are  merchantable 
and  warehousable  and  not  fit  for  the  higher  grades. 


WEIGHTS   AND    MEASUKES.  405 

No.  I  Clipped  White  Oats. — No.  i  Clipped  White  Oats  shall 
be  white,  dry,  sweet,  sound,  clean,  and  free  from  other  grain,  and 
shall  weigh  not  less  than  forty  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

N^o.  2  Clipped  White  Oats. — No.  2  Clipped  White  Oats  "shall 
be  seven-eighths  white,  dry,  sweet,  sound,  reasonably  clean,  and 
practically  free  from  other  grain,  and  shall  weigh  not  less  than 
thirty-eight  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Clipped  White  Oats. — No.  3  Clipped  White  Oats  shall 
be  seven-eighths  white,  dry>  sweet,  sound,  reasonably  clean,  and 
practically  free  from  other  grain,  and  shall  weigh  not  less  than 
thirty-six  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

IV.  RYE. 

N^o.  I  Rye.—lSlo.  i  Rye  shall  be  sound,  plump,  and  well  cleaned, 
and  shall  weigh  not  less  than  fifty-six  pounds  to  the  measured 
bushel. 

N'o.  2  Rye. — No.  2  Rye  shall  be  sound,  reasonably  clean, 
and  reasonably  free  from  other  grain,  and  shall  weigh  not  less 
than  fifty-four  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Rye. — All  rye  slightly  damaged,  slightly  musty,  or  from 
any  other  cause  unfit  for  No.  2  shall  be  graded  as  No.  3. 

V.  BARLEY. 

N'o.  I  Barley. — No.  i  Barley  shall  be  plump,  bright,  clean, 
and  free  from  other  grain,  and  shall  weigh  not  less  than  forty- 
eight  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Barley. — No.  2  Barley  shall  be  sound  and  of  healthy 
color,  not  plump  enough  for  No.  i,  reasonably  clean,  and  reason- 
ably free  from  other  grain,  and  shall  weigh  not  less  than  forty-six 
pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Barley. — No.  3  Barley  shall  include  all  slightly  shrunken 
and  otherwise  slightly  damaged  barley  not  good  enough  for  No. 
2,  and  shalHveigh  not  less  than  forty-four  pounds  to  the  measured 
bushel. 

No.  4  Barley. — No.  4  Barley  shall  include  all  barley  fit  for 
malting  purposes  not  good  enough  for  No.  3. 

No.  I  Feed  Barley. — No.  i  Feed  Barley  must  test  not  less  than 


406  GENERAL  TOPICS. 

forty  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel,  and  be  reasonably  sound 
and  reasonably  clean. 

No.  2  Feed  Barley. — No.  2  Feed  Barley  shall  include  all  barley 
which  is  for  any  cause  unfit  for  the  grade  of  No.  i  Feed  Barley. 

Chevalier  Barley. — Nos.  i,  2,  and  3  Chevalier  Barley  shall 
conform  in  all  respects  to  the  grades  of  Nos.  1,2,  and  3  Barley, 
except  that  they  shall  be  of  a  Chevalier  variety,  grown  in 
Montana, Oregon,  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

No  Grade. — All  Wheat,  Barley,  Oats,  Rye,  and  Corn  that  is 
in  a  heating  condition,  too  musty  or  too  damp  to  be  safe  for  ware- 
housing, or  that  is  badly  bin-burnt,  badly  damaged,  exceedingly 
dirty,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  store,  shall  be  classed  as  No  Grade 
with  inspector's  notation  as  to  quality  and  condition. 

VI.  FLAXSEED. 

All  flaxseed  inspected  shall  be  classed  according  to  quality 
and  conditions  as  follows: 

No.  I  Northwestern  Flaxseed. — Flaxseed  to  grade  No.  i 
Northwestern  shall  be  mature,  sound,  dry,  and  sweet.  It  shall 
be  northern  grown.  The  maximum  quantity  of  field,  stack, 
storage,  or  other  damaged  seed  intermixed  shall  not  exceed 
twelve  and  one-half  (12^)  per  cent.  The  minimum  weight  shall 
be  fifty-one  (51)  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel  of  commercially 
pure  seed. 

No.  I  Flaxseed. — No.  i  Flaxseed  shall  be  northern  grown, 
sound,  dry,  and  free  from  mustiness,  and  carrying  not  more 
than  twenty-five  (25)  per  cent  of  immature  or  field,  stack,  storage, 
or  other  damaged  flaxseed,  and  weighing  not  less  than  fifty  (50) 
pounds  to  the  measured  bushel  of  commercially  pure  seed. 

No.  2  Flaxseed. — Flaxseed  that  is  bin-burnt,  immature,  field 
damaged,  or  musty,  and  yet  not  to  a  degree  to  be  unfit  for  storage, 
and  having  a  test  weight  of  not  less  than  forty-seven  (47)  pounds 
to  the  bushel  of  commercially  pure  seed  shall  be  No.  2  Flaxseed. 

No  Grade  Flaxseed. — Flaxseed  that  is  damp,  warm,  moldy, 
very  musty,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  storage,  or  having  a  weight  of 
less  than  forty-seven  (47)  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel  of 
commercially  pure  seed  shall  be  No  Grade. 


WEIGHTS   AK"D    MEASURES.  406r^ 

GRADES  OF  HAY  AND    STRAW* 

(National  Hay  Association,  1909.) 

A.     Hay. 

Choice  Timothy  Hay. — Shall  be  timothy  not  mixed  with  over 
one-twentieth  other  grasses,  properly  cured,  bright,  natural 
color,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  I.  Timothy  Hay. — Shall  be  timothy  not  more  than  one- 
eighth  mixed  with  clover  or  other  tame  grasses,  properly  cured, 
good  color,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  2,  Timothy  Hay. — Shall  be  timothy  not  good  enough  for 
No.  I,  not  over  one-fourth  mixed  with  clover  or  tame  grasses, 
fair  color,  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  3,  Timothy  Hay. — Shall  include  all  hay  not  good  enough 
for  other  grades,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

Light  Clover-mixed  Hay.  —  Shall  be  timothy  mixed  with 
clover,  the  clover-mixture  not  over  one-fourth,  properly 
cured,  sound,  good  color,  and  well  baled. 

No.  I,  Clover  mixed  Hay  — Shall  be  timothy  and  clover  mixed, 
with  at  least  one-half  timothy,  good  color,  sound,  and  well 
baled. 

No,  2,  Clover-mixed  Hay.  —  Shall  be  timothy  and  clover 
mixed,  with  at  least  one-third  timothy,  reasonably  sound, 
and  well  baled. 

No.  I,  Clover  Hay. — Shall  be  medium  clover,  not  over  one- 
twentieth  othergrasses,  properly  cured,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  2,  Clover  Hay. — Shall  be  clover,  sound,  well  baled,  not 
good  enough  for  No.  I. 

No  Grade  Hay. — Shall  include  all  hay  badly  cured,  stained, 
thrashed,  or  in  any  way  unsound. 

Choice  Prairie  Hay. — Shall  be  upland  hay,  ofbright  natural 
color,  well  cured,  sweet,  sound,  and  may  contain  3  per  cent 
of  weeds. 

No.  I,  Prairie  Hay. —  Shall  be  upland,  and  may  contain  one- 
quarter  midland,  both  of  good  color,  well  cured,  sweet,  sound, 
and  may  contain  8  per  cent  of  weeds. 

No.  2,  Prairie  Hay. — Shall  be  upland  of  fair  color,  and  may 
contain  one-half  midland,  both  of  good  color,  well  cured, 
sweet,  sound,  and  may  contain  I2|  per  cent  of  weeds. 

No.  3,  Prairie  Hay  — Shall  include  hay  not  good  enough 
for  other  grades  and  not  caked. 


40G6  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

No.  I,  Midland  Hay. — Shall  be  hay  of  good  color,  well 
cured,  sweet,  sound,  and  may  contain  3  per  cent  of  weeds. 

No.  2,  Midland  Hay  — Shall  be  fair  color  or  slough  hay  of 
good  color  and  inay  contain  12^  per  cent  of  weeds. 

Packing  Hay. — Shall  include  all  wild  hay  not  good  enough 
for  other  grades  and  not  caked. 

No-grade  Prairie  Hay. — -Shall  include  all  hay  not  good 
enough  for  other  grades. 

Choice  Alfalfa  — Shall  be  reasonably  fine,  leafy  alfalfa  of 
brightgreen  color, properly  cured, sound, sweet,  and  well  baled. 

A^o.  I,  Alfalfa. — Shall  be  coarse  alfalfa  of  natural  color  or 
reasonably  line,  leafy  alfalfa  of  good  color,  and  may  contain 
5  per  cent  of  foreign  grasses,  must  be  well  baled,  sound,  and 
sweet. 

No  2,  Alfalfa — Shall  include  alfalfa  somewhat  bleached, 
but  of  fair  color,  reasonably  leafy,  not  more  than  one-eighth 
foreign  grasses,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  3,  Alfalfa. — Shall  include  bleached  alfalfa  or  alfalfa 
mixed  with  not  to  exceed-  one-fourth  foreign  grasses,  but 
when  mixed  must  be  of  fair  color,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No- grade  Alfalfa. — Shall  include  all  alfalfa  not  good  enough 
for  other  grades,  caked,  musty,  greasy,  or  thrashed. 

B.  Straw. 

No.  I,  Straight  Rye  Straw. — Shall  Ix;  in  large  bales,  clean, 
bright,  long  rye  straw,  pressed  in  bundles,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  2,  Straight  Rye  Straw. — Shall  be  in  large  bales,  long  rye 
straw,  pressed  ia  bundles,  sound,  and  well  baled,  not  good 
enough  for  No.  i. 

No.  I,  Tangled  Rye  Straw. — Shall  be  reasonably  clean  rye 
straw,  good  color,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  2,  Tangled  Rye  Straw. — Sha'l  be  reasonably  clean,  may 
be  some  stained,  but  not  good  enough  for  No.  i. 

A'o.  I,  Wheat  Straw. — Shall  be  reasonably  clean  wheat  straw, 
sound,  and  wel!  baled. 

No.  2,  Wheat  Straw. — Shall  be  reasonably  clean,  may  be  some 
stained,  but  not  good  enough  for  No.  i. 

No.  I,  Oat  Straw. — Shall  be  reasonably  clean  oat  straw,  sound, 
and  well  baled. 

No.  2,  Oat  Straw. — Shall  be  reasonably  clean,  may  be  some 
stained,  but  not  good  enough  for  No.  i. 


\VI  [GHTS    AND    MEASURES.  407 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY   OF    VARIOUS    SUBSTANCES 

(Trautwinh.) 


Average 
Weight  ot 
I  cu.  foot, 
in  Pounde. 


Aluminum 

Anthracite,  i. 3-1. 84,  usually 

"  broken,  of  any  size,  loose 

(A  ton,  loose,  averages  from  40  to  43  cubic  feet.) 
Ash,  American  white,  dry 

"  "  "       perfectly  dry 

Asphaltum,  1-1.8 

Boxwood,  dry . 

Brass  (copper  and  zinc)  cast,  7. 8-8. 4 

Bronze  (copper  8  parts,  tin  i  part,  gun  metal),  S.4- 
8.6  

"Cement,  English  Portland 

Charcoal,  of  pines  and  oaks 

Cherry,  perfectly  dry 

Chesmut.  perfectly  dry  

Coal,  bituminous  1,2-1.5   

broken,  of  any  size,  loose 

(.\  ton  occupies  from  43  to  48  cubic  feet.) 

Copper,  cast,  8.6-8.8 

Cork 

Coke,  loose,  of  good  coal 

(A  ion  occupies  80  to  97  c  ubic  feet.) 

Elm,  perfectly  dry 

Fat 

Glass,  2.5-3.45.    

Gold,  cast,  pure 

Gravel,  about  the  same  as  sand,  which  see. 

Hemlock,  perfectly  dry 

Hickory,  perfectly  dry 

Ice,  .917-.922 

India  rubber 

Iron,  casl,  6.9-7  4,  ••   •   > 

Lard 

Lead    ix.p8-ii.  7 

Lime.q   ick 

'    ground  laose,  ^er  struck  bu,  62-72  lbs.. 
LimesK^ne  ;  nd  marMes 

Mahoga..y,  S  anish,  dry 

Maple,  dry 

Mercury,  at  60**  F 

Oak,  white,  per£e..tl7  dry,  .66-.88 


61 

752 

4 

96 

I 

5 


672 

66 

35 


.56 
•93 

19.258 


■77 


162. 
93-5 
52-56 

38. 
47- 
83.3 

60. 

504- 

529- 

8i-io# 
15   ',0 
42. 
41. 

84. 
47-52 

J»2. 
15      . 

23-3» 


35. 
58. 


•4 
■85 

25  • 

53. 

.92 

•93 

7- 15 

446. 

•95 
11.38 

15 

59-3 
709.6 

95- 

2.6 

164.4 

■85 

•79 

13-58 

53- 

49- 

846. 

48 


408 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


BPKCIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  VARIOUS   SUBSTANCES.— 

Continued. 


Oak,  red,  black,  etc. 

"     live,  .88-1.02. .. 

Oils,  olive,  whale... 


Peat 

Petroleum 

Pint:,  white,  perfectly  dry,   35-.45. 

"      vellow,  Northern.  .48  to  .62. 

"  "  Southern,  .64-. 80.  .. 
Platinum,  21-22 


Quartz,  common,  pure,  2.64-2.67. 
Rosin  


Salt,  coarse,  per  struck  bu.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  56  lbs. 
Sand  of  pure  quartz,  dry  and  loose,  per  struck  bu. 

112-133  lbs 

Sand  ot  pure  quartz,  wet 

Silver  

Snow,  fresh  fallen 

"       moistened  and  compacted  by  rain 

Soils,  common  loam,  perfectly  dry,  loose 

Soils,  common    loam,    perfectly    dry,    moderately 

rammed 

Soils,  common  loam,  slightly  moist,  loose  

"  "  "      as  a  soft,  flowing  mud 

Spruce,  perfectly  dry 

Sulphur 

Steel,  7.7-7.9  

Sycamore,  perfectly  dry 


Tar 

Tin,  cast '. . 

Walnut,  perfectly  dry 

Water,  pure  rain  or  d  stilled,  at  32"  F.  (barometer 

30  in.) 

Water,  pure  rain  or    'i  tilled  at  62°  F.  (barometer 

30  in.) 

Water,   pure  rain  or  distilled   water  at    212*  F. 

(barometer  30  in.) 

Water,  sea,  i. 026-1.030 

Wax,  bees' 


Zinc,  6.8-7.2. 


Averatre      Average 
Soedl:     W^'g^ht°f 

Gravilv      ^  ^"-  ^«°t» 
v^ravity.  -^^  pound*. 


31 


878 
40 

55 
72 

5 


a.  6^ 
1. 1 


10.5 


•4 
2.0 
7.85 

•59 

i.o 

7-35 

.61 


\.ort 
•97 


7.0 


32-45 

59-3 
57-3 

20-30 
54.8 

25- 

34-3 
45  • 
i342^ 

68.6 

45- 

90-106 
118-H9 

655. 
5-12 
15-20 
72-80 

90-100 

70-76 

104-113 

25- 
125. 
490. 

37^ 

62.4 
459^ 

38^ 

62.417 

62.35$ 

59  7 

64.08 
60.5 

437^5 


NoTH.— Green  timbers  usually  weigh  from  one  fifth  to  nearly  one  hall 
more  than  dry  and  ordinary  buic;  ;g  timbers  when  tolerably  seasoned; 
about  one  sixth  more  than  perfec  ly  dry. 


WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 


401 


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410 


GE1?"ERAL   TOPICS. 


B.     Countries  with  Fluctuating  Currencies. 


Bolivia 

Central  America, 

China 

Colombia 

Mexico 

Persia 

Tripoli 


Boliviano  (  =ioo  centavos) 

Peso 

Shanghai  tael 

Haikwan  tael  (customs) 

Dollar. 

Dollar  (peso)(  =  lOO  centavos) 

Kran 

Mahbub  (  =20  piasters) 


about 
$0.38,9 
.38,9 
.69,2 
.77.1 
1 .00 
.49.8 
.17.04 
•  44 


MONEY  CONVERSION  TABLE. 


0 

en 

*-' 

T3 

i> 

^ 

• 

C 

u 

c 

>, 

>. 

rt 

rt 

3 

'C 

C  ^ 

e 
0 

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0 

2^ 

0 

u 
"6 

^% 

c  u 

en 

3 

C 

5 

0 

u 

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S 

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fe 

0 

S  0.27 

U 

I 

$    4-87 

$  0.24 

S  0. 19 

$  0.40 

$  0.52 

S  0.20 

2 

9-73 

.48 

39 

.80 

I  03 

-4 

.41 

3 

14  .60 

.71 

.■58 

I. 21 

1-55 

.80 

.61 

4 

19.47 

•9S 

77 

I. 61 

2.06 

1.07 

.81 

S 

24 -33 

1.19 

97 

2.01 

2.58 

1-34 

1.02 

6 

29.20 

1.43 

lb 

2.41 

3-09 

1. 61 

1.22 

7 

34-07 

1.67 

35 

2.81 

3.6i 

i.tS 

1.42 

8 

38.93 

I  .yo 

54 

3.22 

4.1  = 

2.14 

1.62 

9 

43 -So 

2.14 

74 

3.62 

4.64 

2.4« 

1.33 

10 

48. 67 

2.38 

93 

4.02 

S-t."^ 

2.68 

2.03 

20 

97-33 

4.76 

3 

86 

8.04 

10.30 

5-36 

4.06 

30 

146.00 

7.14 

5 

79 

12.06 

15-45 

8.04 

6.09 

40 

194.66 

9.52 

7 

72 

16.08 

20.60 

10.72 

8.12 

50 

243-33 

1 1,  go 

9 

65 

20.  TO 

25.75 

^3  40 

10.15 

100 

486.65 

23.80 

19 

30 

40.20 

51-50 

26.80 

20.30 

STATISTICAL    TABLES. 


411 


IV.     STATISTICAL  TABLES. 

AREA    AND    POPULATION    OF    THE    UNITED 
STATES,    1910.      (Thirteenth  Census.) 


States  or 
Territories. 


Alabama.  .  .  . 

Arizona 

Arkansas.  .  .  . 
California.  .  . 
Colorado .... 
Connecticut  . 
Delaware. .  .  . 
D.  of  Colum. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky.  .  . 
Louisiana.  . . . 

Maine 

Maryland  .  .  . 
Massachustts 
Michigan. .  .  . 
Minnesota. .  . 
Mississippi  . . 
Missouri .... 
Montana.  .  .  . 
Nebraska. .  .  . 
Nevada 


Land 
Area, 
Sq.  Mi. 

51.279 

113,810 

52,525 

155.652 

103,658 

4,820 

1,965 

60 

54.861 

58.725 

83,354 

56.0.U 

36,045 

5.>.586 

81.774 
40.181 
45.409 
29.895 
9.941 
8,039 
57,480 
80,858 
46,362 
68,727 

146,201 
76,808 

109,821 


Popula- 
tion. 


2,138 
204 

1.574 

2,377 
799 

1,114 

202 

331 

752 

2,609 

325 

5,638 

2,700 

2,224 

1,690 

2,289 

1. 656 

742 

1,295 

3.366 

2,810 

2.075 

1.797 

3,293 

376 

1. 192 

81 


.093 
,354 
.449 
,549 
,024 
,756 
,322 
,069 
,619 
,121 
.594 
■  591 
.876 
.771 
,949 
,905 
,388 
,371 
.346 
.416 
,173 
,708 

.114 
,335 
,053 
,214 
,875 


States  or 
Territories. 


N.  Hampshire, 
New  Jersey.  .  . 
New  Mexico.  . 
N  ew  York  . ' .  . 
N.  Carolina. .  . 
N.  Dakota. .  .  . 

Ohio 

Oklahoma.  .  .  . 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania . 
Rhode  Island . 
S.  Carolina.  .  . 
S.  Dakota.  .  .  . 
Tennessee .  .  .  . 

Te.xas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington. .  . 
Vv''.  Virginia. .  . 
Wisconsin .  .  .  . 
Wyoming 

Total 

Alaska 

Hawaii 

Porto  Rico. .  . . 


Land 

Area 

Sq.  Mi. 


9,031 

7.5t4 

122,503 

47.654 
48.740 
70.183 
40,740 
69,414 
95,607 
44.832 

1,067 
30,495 
76,868 
41.687 
262,398 
82,184 

9,124 
40,262 
66,836 
24,022 
55,256 
97.594 


Popula- 
tion. 


430 
2,537 

327 
9,113 
2,206 

577 
4,767 
1.657 

672 
7,665 

542, 
1,515, 

5S3, 
2,184, 
3.806, 

373, 

355, 
2,061, 
1,141, 
1,221, 
2.233, 

145, 


572 
,167 
301 
614 
287 
056 

121 
155 
765 
III 
610 
400 

888 
789 
542 
351 
956 
612 
990 
119 
860 
96s 


2,973,890  91.972,266 


590.884 
6,449 
3.435 


64.356 

191,909 

1,118.012 


AREA    AND    POPULATION    OF    CANADA,    1911. 


Provinces 

and 
Districts. 

Land 
Area, 
Sq.  Mi. 

Popula- 
tion. 

Provinces 

and 
Districts. 

Land 

Area, 

Sq.  Mi. 

Popula- 
tion. 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova  Scotia.  . 
N.  Brunswick. 
Manitoba.  .  .  . 
Brit.  Colum. .  . 

365.880 
690.865 
21.068 
27.911 
231.926 
353,416 

2,523.274 

2,003,232 

402. 33S 

351, 88r 

455,614 
392,480 

Pr.  Ed.  Island.. 
Saskatchewan.  . 

Alberta 

Yukon 

N.  W.  Terrifs.. 

Total 

1 

2,184 

243,382 

252,925 

206,427 

1,207,926 

93.728 

492,432 

374.663 

8.512 

18.481 

3,603,910 

7.206,643 

^12 


GENERAL  TOPICS. 


•t  O   ovo  w         moo 


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H 
CD 

H 


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m  =^ 


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to  0  O    1^  -*-oo 


moo  o^  "^  '1 


r^oo  lovo 


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(y  Ul  lO  o  o    M 


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^■a  3 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


413 


AVERAGE   AND   ACTUAL.   DATE    OF   LAST   AND 
FIRST   KILLING   FROST. 

(U.  S.  Weather  Bureau.) 


State. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

Colorado 

Connecticut.. . . 

Dist.  of  Col 

Florida    

Georgia 

n 

Illinois 

i( 

Indiana 

Iowa 

li 
Kansas , 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts  . , 
Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New  Jersey  .   .  , 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

u 
it 

North  Carolina. 


Locality. 


Mobile     

Montgomery. 
Little  Rock.. 
Fort  Smith... 

Denver 

New  Haven.. 
Washington. 
Cedar  Key  .. 
Jacksonville 

Pensacola 

Atlanta 

Augusta...  . 
Savannah. . ., 

Cairo   

Chicago 

Springfield 

Indianapolis. . 
Des  Moines. . . 

Dubuque . 

Keokuk 

Dodge  City. . . 
Leavenworth. 

Louisville 

New  Orleans., 
Shreveport.. .. 
Portsmouth  . . 
Baltimore   ... 

Boston 

Detroit 

Grand  Haven, 

Marquette 

St.  Paul 

Duluth 

Moor  he  ad 

Vicksburg..     . 

St.  Louis 

Omaha 

North  Platte.. 
Atlantic  City  . 
Cape  May. . . . 

Santa  F^ 

Albany  

Buffalo 

New  York 

Oswego 

Rochester 

Charlotte 

Hatteras 


Spring. 


Average, 


7 

25 

17 


Feb.  24 
Mar.  10 
Mar.  21 
Mar.  22 
May  25 
May  30 
April  4 
Feb.  4 
Feb.  24 
Mar 
Mar 
Mar, 
Mar, 
Mar.  31 
April  23 
April  16 
April  17 
April  24 
April  27 
April  ID 
April  22 
April  6 
April  8 
Feb.  2 
Feb.  26 
April  14 
April  6 


May  2 
May  30 
May  18 
May  I 
May  6 
May  18 
Mar.  3 
Mar.  31 
April  15 
May  I 
April  6 
April  6 
April  22 
April  21 
May  27 
April  14 
April  26 
May  3 
April  I 
Feb.  27 


Last. 


April  6 
April  6 
April  14 
April  6 
June  6 
May  30 
April  20 
Mar.  12 
Mar.  27 
April  6 
May  21 
April  5 
April  5 
May  8 
May  25 
May  25 
May  21 
May  31 
May  23 
May  2 
May  23 
May  21 
May  15 
Mar.  27 
Mar.  31 
May  5 
May  3 
May  17 
May  28 
May  28 
June  II 
May  25 
June  8 
June  5 
April  22 
May  2 


April  29 
May  3 
May  22 
May  22 
May  29 
April  35 
May  29 
May  29 
May  3 
April  5 


Fall. 


Earliest. 


Nov,  a 
Oct.  21 
Oct,  8 
Oct.  7 
Sept.  10 
Sept.  IS 
Oct.  4 
Nov.  25 
Nov.  13 
Nov.  12 
Oct.  16 
Oct.  8 
Nov.  2 
Oct.  2 
Sept.  37 
Sept.  13 
Sept.  26 
Sept.  IS 
Sept.  5 
Sept.  18 
Sept.  23 
Sept.  13 
Sept.  30 
Nov.  it 
Oct.  13 
Sept.  7 
Oct.  6 
Sept.  30 
Sept.  33 
Aug,  21 

Aug.  23 

Sept.  I 
Sept.  13 
Aug.  25 
Oct.  19 
Oct.  14 
Sept.  20 
Sept.  10 
Oct.  4 
Oct.  29 
Sept.  19 
Oct.  15 
Sept.  21 
Oct.  15 
Sept.  26 
Sept.  26 
Oct.  8 

Nov.  32 


414 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


DATE   OF   last;  AND   FIRST   KILLING   FROST- 

Continued. 


State. 

Locality. 

Spring. 

Fall. 

Average. 

Last. 

Earliest. 

North  Carolina  .... 
North  Dakota 

Manteo 

Wilmington.    ........ 

IJismarck 

Mar.  14 
Mar.  15 

April  ig 
April  20 
June  6 
June  8 
May  22 
June  6 
May  17 
May  23 
May  23 
April  13 
May  29 
April  29 
May  22 
April  2 
May  31 
June  22 
May  23 
Ap  il  24 
April  25 
April  21 
May  24 
Mar.  29 
Mar.  1 
April  22 
Mar.  18 
Mar.  30 
May  7 
April  26 
May  23 
May  28 

Oct.  16 
Oct.  13 

St.  Vincent 

April  15 
April  26 
April  18 
April  9 
April  24 
Mar.  15 
April  25 
April  5 
April  27 
Feb.  24 
May  11 
MaJ'  14 
April  28 
Mar.  23 
April  6 
Mar.  24 
Mar.  31 
Mar.  14 
Jan.  24 
Mar.  27 
Feb.  2 

April  II 
Mar.  26 
May  I 
April  30 

Aug.  4 
Sept.  30 
Sept.  24 
Sept  29 
Oct.  8 
Sept.  9 
Oct.  I 

Ohio 

Cincinnati 

Cleveland 

Columbus 

>• 

,j     

Sandusky 

Toledo 

Oklahoma 

Fort  Sill 

Pennsylvania.   ..    . 

Erie 

Sept.  16 
Oci.  2 
Sept.  25 
Nuv.  8 
Sept.  7 
Sept.  3 
Sept.  13 
Sept.  30 
Oct.  8 
Oct.  2 

Philadelphia 

Pittsburg 

South  Carolina.   . . . 
South  Dakota 

Charleston 

Dead  wood 

Huron 

Tennessee 

It 

Yankton 

Chat'anooga 

Knoxville 

Memphis .". 

11 

Nashville 

Oct.  8 

Texas 

Abilene       

Oct.  ■2^ 

Brownsville 

El  Paso 

Dec.  5 
Oct.  24 
Nov.  18 

It 

It 

Galveston 

11 

Palestine 

Lynchburg    

Nov.  10 

Virginia    

Oct.  3 
Oct.  10 

Norfolk. 

La  Crosse 

Wisconsin 

Sept.  21 
Sept.  17 

11 

Milwaukee 

STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


415 


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A 
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416 


GEKEKAL   TOPICS. 


METEOROLOGICAL    DATA    FOR   CANADA. 


Province  or  City. 


^ 


Ontario 

uebec 

ew  Brunswick 

Nova  Scotia 

Prince  Edward  Island 

Manitoba 

British  Columbia 

Toronto 

Montreal 

St.  John.  N.  B 

Halifax,  N.  S 


Normal  Mean  Temperature  of  tlie  Air. 


Monthly  Temperature. 


Lowest. 


19-3° 

13-5 

i6.i 

21  .2 
14.7 
0.6 
22.8 
22.9 
16.8 
18.4 
22.9 


Highest. 


8°  F. 


Mtan  for  the 
Year. 


43-8° 

42.6 

39-9 

41-7 

40-5 

32.6 

48.1 

44.1 

44-3 

40-3 

43   I 


Normal  rain/all  in  inches  per  year  :  Toronto  29.42,  Windsoi  23.78, 
Peterborough  20.55,  Montreal  27.26,  Quebec  19.26,  St.  John  33.27,  Halifax 
43.08,  Glace  Bay  53  49,  Sydney  49.42,  Winnipeg  16.83,  Spence's  Bridge  3.88. 


COMPARISON  OF  LEADING    INDUSTRIES    IN    THE 
UNITED    STATES.      (.U,  S.  Census  of  1890.  in  Round  Numbers.) 


Agriculture   

Forest  products,  total 

Forest     industries,     enu- 
merated   

Forest  products,  not  enu- 
merated (estimated)    ... 
Manufactures  using  wood 

Mineral  products,  total 

Coal   

Gold  and  silver 

Iron  and  steel 

Manufactures  of  iron  and 

steel 

Leather         

Leather  manufactures 

Woolen  "  

Cotton  "  


Millions. 
15,982 


562 


543 


a 
S 


Thousands. 
8,286 


348 


513 


343 
486 
414 

300 

57 
176 

86 

60 

102 
118 

48 
186 

297 

219 

354 

222 

i 

Millions. 

Millions. ' 

102 

245 

294 

442 

109 

40 
96 

327 

32 
25 
88 

79 
136 

153 

77 

203 

70 

155 

Millions. 
2.460 
1,044 

446 

598 
907 
610 
160 
99 
479 

131 

178 

289 

338 
268 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


417 


ARKAS  OF  APPROPRIATED,  VACANT,  AND  RE- 
SERVED LANDS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1898. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


.States  and 
Territories. 

Total  Area. 

Unap- 
prop. 
and  Un- 
reserved. 

Reserved 

Total 
Govern- 
ment 
Land. 

Appropri- 
ated. 

Alabama 

acres. 

32,658,000 
72,792,500 
33,543,500 
99,361,083 
66.390.650 
35,264,500 
52,830,200 
19,575,040 
52,383,000 
28,863,188 
36,819,000 
51,689,444 
29,685,000 
43,796,000 
95,259,720 

49,137,339 
70,336,500 
78,197,005 
44,902.987 
24,753-663 
61.626,218 
48,158,555 
52,580,000 
42,684,084 
35,275,000 
62,433,000 
579,024,029 

per  cent. 

1 .60 
71.07 
1 1 .02 
42.72 
59.81 

4-98 
83.68 

2.02 

2.62 

1-37 

11.07 

1 .29 

1.02 

75-13 
21.47 

87.33 
69.76 
45.82 
28.31 
58.25 
26.55 
83-43 
31-49 
1.17 

78-54 

per  cent. 

.26 

21.12 

.01 

16.35 

9.38 

.06 

3.67 

100.00 

1.89 

5-11 

.24 

9.64 

12.03 
.14 

8.51 
10.69 

6.79 
29.11 

8.87 
23.09 
10.37 
26.08 

1.04 

13.16 

.04 

per  cent. 
1.86 
92.16 
11.03 

59.07 
69.19 

5.04 

87.35 

100.00 

3-91 

7.73 

1.61 

20.71 

1 .29 

1.02 

87.16 

21 .61 

95-74 
80.45 
52.61 

57.42 
67.12 
49.64 
93.80 

57-57 

2.21 

91.70 

.04 

per  cent. 
98.14 
7.81 
88.07 
40.93 
30.81 
94.96 
12.65 

Arkansas    ...          .. 

California  

Colorado 

Florida          

Idaho       .         

Indian  Territory... 

Kansas    

96.09 
92.27 

98.39 
79.29 
98.71 
98.98 
12.84 

78.39 
4.26 

19.55 
47-39 
42.58 
32.88 
50-36 
6.20 

42 -43 

97-79 

8.30 

99.96 

Louisiana 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi   

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada  ...       

New  Mexico 

North  Dakota 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

South  Dakota 

Utah 

Washington 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming  

Other  States 

Total 

1,900,019,201 

30.21 

7.64 

37-85 

62.15 

FARMING   POPULATION    OF   THE   UNITED 
STATES,    1880,   1890,    AND    1900. 


Tenth 
Census. 

Eleventh 
Census. 

Twelfth 
Census. 

Total  population 

50,152,866 

7,713.875 
603,202 
3,423.815 
1,866,481 
3,784,726 

62,622,250 

8,565,026 
044..S,13 
4,220,81 2 
3,326,122 
5,678,468 

75.004. S7S 

Total  engaged  in  agriculture. .  . 
Professional  service 

10,381,765 
1,258,739 

Domestic  and  personal  service 

Trade  and  transportation 

Mfg.  and  mechan.  pursuits 

5,580,657 
4,766,964 
7,085,992 

All  occupations 

17,392,009 
44-3 

22,735,661 

37-7 

29,074,1 17 

Engaged  in  agriculture,  per 
cent 

35.7 

418 


GEXEKAL   TOPICS. 


NUMBER    AND    CLASSIFICATIOX   OP    THE    AGRI- 
CULTUIIAL     P0PUL.AT10X,    lO    YEARS    01<^    AGE 

AND    OVER. 

(Twelfth  Census.) 


Occupation. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total. 

Agricultural  laborers 

Dairymen  ?.nd  dairyvvomen 

Farmers,  planters,  and  overseers 

Gardeners,  florists,  nurserymen,  etc  .  .  . 

Lumberman  and  raftsmen 

Stock-raisers,  herders,  and  drovers.  .  .  . 

Turpentine  fariners  and  laborers 

AVoofl-choppers 

3.747,668 

9.983 

5.367,169 

58,028 

71,920 

83,056 

24,456 

35.962 

5,287 

663,209 

892 

307,706 

2,860 

100 

1,9.^2 

281 
113 
243 

4,410,877 

10,875 

5,674,875 
61.788 
72,020 
84.988 
?4,737 
36,075 
5.53c 

Other  agricultural  pursuits 

Total  engaged  in  agriculture 

0,404,429 

977.336 

10  381,765 

NUMBER    OF    FARMS    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 
AND    THEIR    VALUIO. 

(Thirteenth  Census.) 


States. 

No.  of 
Farms. 

1 
Value. 

States. 

No.  of 
Farms. 

Value. 

Alabama  . 

262,901 

$370,138,429 

Xcbraska. . 

129,678 

2,079,818,647 

Arizona.  . 

9,227 

75,123.970 

Nevada. . . 

2,689 

60,399.365 

Arkansas. 

214,678 

400,089.303! 

N.  Hamp. . 

27.053 

103,704,196 

California 

88.197 

1,614.694.584' 

\.  Jersey. . 

33,487 

251.832,66s 

Colorado . 

46,170 

491.471,800 

N.  Mexico. 

35.676 

159,399,771 

Conn .... 

26,815 

159,399,771 

\.  York. .  . 

215,597 

1,451,481,495 

Delawa-e. 

10,836 

63,179,201 

X.  Carolina 

253.725 

537,716,210 

D.  of  Col. 

217 

8,476.533 

N.  Dakota. 

74,360 

974,814,20s 

Florida. .  . 

50.016 

143,183,183 

Ohio 

272,045 

1,902,694,589 

Georj^ia.  . 

291,027 

580,546,381 

.Oklahoma. 

190,192 

918,198,882 

Idaho. .  .  . 

30,807 

305,317,185 

'Oregon..  .  . 

45-502 

528,243.782 

Illinois.  .  . 

251,872 

3.905,321.075 

,Penna 

219.295 

1,253,274,862 

Indiana.  . 

?I5,485 

1,809.135  =  238 

Rhode  I. .  . 

5.292 

32,990,739 

Iowa 

217,044 

3,745,860,544 

S.  Carolina 

176,434 

392,128,314 

Kansas. .  . 

177,841 

2,039,389,910 

'S.  Dakota. 

177,8:11 

1,166,096,980 

Kentucky 

259,185 

773.797,880 

Tenn 

259,815 

612,520,836 

Louisiana. 

120, 5d6 

301,220.988 

Texas 

120.546 

2,218,645,164 

Maine  . .  . 

60,016 

199,271,998 

Utah 

21,676 

150,795,201 

Maryland 

48.923 

286,167,028 

Vermont  . . 

32,709 

145,399,728 

Mass.  .  .  . 

36.917 

226.474,0251 

Virginia.  .  . 

184.018 

625,065.383 

Michigan 

206,960 

1,088,858,379 

Wash 

56,192 

637,543,411 

Minn.  .  .  . 

T56,I37 

1,476,411,737 

W.  Va 

96.685 

314,738,540 

Miss 

274-382 

426,314,634 

Wisconsin  . 

177,127 

1.413. 118. 785 

Missouri  . 

277,244 

2,052,917,488 

Wyoming.. 

10,987 

167,189,081 

Montana. 

26,214 

347,828,770! 

1 

Total .  .  . 

6,361,502 

40,991.449,090 

STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


419 


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424 


GEN'ERAL   TOPICS. 


AVERVGE  AGRICULTURAL.  WAGES    IX  THE  U.  S. 
IN    1893-18J>5,    INCLUSIVE.      (U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Per  Month  for 
Season  or  Year. 

Per  Day  in 
Harvest. 

Per  Day  other 
than  Harvest. 

Years. 

With 
Board. 

Without 
Board. 

With 
Board. 

Without 
Board. 

With 
Board. 

Without 
Board. 

1893 

1894 

1895 

$13-29 
12.16 
12.02 

S19.  10 

17-74 
17.69 

$1.03 
•93 
•  92 

Si.  24 

I-I3 
1. 14 

$0.  69 

.63 
.62 

$0.89 
.81 
.81 

INDUSTRY    GROUPS    IN    THE    1  NITED    STATES. 

(Twelfth  Census.) 


Food  and  kindred  prod'cts 

Textiles 

Iron  and  steel  and  their 
products 

Lumber  and  its  manuf'res. 

Leather  and  its  finished 
products. 

Paper  and  prin  tin)? 

Liquors  and  beverages.  .  . 

Chemicals  and  allied  pr'cts 

Clay,  glass,  and  stone  pr'ts 

Metals  and  inetal  prod'cts 
other  than  iron  and  steel 

Tobacco 

Vehicles  for  land  transpor- 
tation  

Shipbuilding 

Miscellaneous  industries  . 

Hand  trades 


Number  of 
Establish- 
ments. 


61,266 
30,048 

13,896 
47.054 

16,989 

26,747 

7.861 

5.443 
14,809 

16,305 
15,252 

TO, II  2 

1,116 

29.479 

215,814 


Capital. 


$937,686,610 
1.366,604,058 

1,528,979,076 
945.934,565 

343,600,513 
557.610,887 
534,101,049 
408,282,219 
350,902,367 

410,646,057 
1  24,089,871 

396,671,441 

77,362,701 

1,348,920,721 

392,442,255 


Av.  Number 
of  Wage 
Earners. 


3". 717 
1 ,029,910 

733,963 
546,872 

238,202 
297,551 
63,072 
ici  ,480 
244,987 

100,757 
142,277 

316,157 

46,781 

483,273 

559.130 


Food  and  kindred  prod'cts 

Textiles 

Iron  and  steel  and  their 
products 

Lumber  and  its  manuf'res. 

Leather  and  its  finished 
prodvicts 

Paper  and  printing 

Liquors  and  beverages.  .  . 

Chemicals  and  allied  pr'ts. 

Clay,  glass,  and  stone  pr'ts 

Metals  and  metal  products 
other  than  iron  and  steel 

Tobacco 

Vehicles  for  land  transpor- 
tation  

Sbi'-(bnildine 

Ivliscellaneius  industries.  . 

Hand  trades 


Wages. 


$128,667,428 
341.734.399 

381,875,400 
212,124,780 

90,759,885 

140,092,453 

36,946,557 

43, "^50, 282 

109,022,582 

96,749,051 
49,852,484 

164,559,022 

24,839,163 

202,746,162 

288,118,421 


Value  of  Products. 


Gross. 


2,273,880,874 
1,637,484,484 

1,793,490,908 
1,030,695,350 

583,731,046 
606,317,768 
425,504,167 

552,707,877 
293,564,235 

748,795,464 
283,076,546 

508,524,510 

74,578,158 

1,0^4,002,294 

1,183,61 :;  ,478 


Net. 


1,750,811,817 
1,081,961,248 

983,821,918 
547,227,860 

329,614,996 
419,798,101 
349,157,618 
372,538,857 
245,447,118 

371,154,446 
264,052,573 

250,622,377 

42,492,518 

6^3,101,538 

7  ^T,Tf^/l.8crv 


STATISTICAL    TABLES. 


425 


AREA,    PRODUCTION,    AND    VALUE    OF    PRINCIPAL 
CROPS    IN    THE     UNITED    STATES,     1912 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Total  Pro- 

Total 

Total 

Ave. 

Ave. 
Farm 

Ave. 
Value 

Crop 

duction.* 

Area, 

Value. 

Yield 

Price  per 

per  Acre, 
Dollars. 

Acres.* 

Dollars.* 

per  Acre. 

Unit. 

Cents. 

Indian  corn 

.  .bu. 

3.124,746 

107,083 

1,520,454 

29.  2 

48.7 

14.22 

Wheat, 

730,267 

45.814 

555.280 

15.9 

76.0 

12.08 

Oats. 

r, 418, 337 

37.917 

452,469 

37.4 

31.9 

11-93 

Barley. 

223,824 

7.530 

112,957 

29.7 

50.4 

1497 

Rye. 

35.664 

2,117 

23.636 

16.8 

66.3 

II .  14 

Buckwheat 

19,249 

841 

12,720 

22.9 

66.1 

IS. 14 

Potatoes, 

420,647 

3. 711 

212,550 

113. 4 

50.5 

57.27 

Hav. 

tons 

72,691 

49.530 

856,695 

1.47 

li.79t 

17-33 

Cotton  t 

bales 

15.693 

36,04s 

732,420 

207.7 

8.8 

18.28 

Tobacco, 

lbs. 

962,85s 

1,226 

104,063 

785.5 

10.8 

84-83 

Flaxseed 

bu. 

28,073 

2.851 

32,202 

9.8 

114. 7 

II  .24 

Rice, 

*  * 

25,054 

723 

23.423 

34-7 

93   5 

32.44 

Hops  t. 

lbs.        51.672   1 

*  Expressed  in  thousands;  000  omitted. 

t  Dollars. 

j  Data  for  191 1. 


THE    PRINCIPAL    CEREAL    PRODUCTS    OF    THE 
UNITED    STATES. 

As  Shown  by  the  Census  Returns,  from  1850  to  1910. 


Cen- 
sus 


Indian 
Corn. 


1850 
i860 
1870 


Bushels. 


Wheat. 


Bushels. 


592,071,104  100,485,944 
838,792,742  173.104,924 
760,944,549  287.745.626 
18801  1,754,861,525  459.479.505 
1890  2,112,327,547  468,373.968 
1900  2,666,324,370  658,534.252 
19101  2,552,189,630,683,379.259 


Oats. 


Barley. 


Rye. 


Buck- 
wheat. 


Bushels.  Bushels.       Bushels.    I   Bushels. 

146,584.179  5,167,015  14. 18S. 813'  8,956,912 
172,643,185  1 5. 82s, 898' 2 1,10 1,380!  1 7, 57 1, 8 18 
282,107,157  29,761,305  16.918,7051  9,821,721 
407,858,999  44.113.405  1 1X8,5 1, 505 'II, 8 1 7, 3 27 
809,250,666  78,332,976  28, 421, 3(;8  12,110,349 
943.389.37s ]  1 19.634.877  25.568,625!  1 1.233,5  IS 
,007,142.980  173,344.212  29.520.457 1 14.849.332 


PRODUCTION  OF  VARIOUS  CROPS  IN  CANADA,  1912. 


Crops. 


Wheat bu 

Barley 

Oats 

Rye 

Peas 

Beans 

Buckwheat .... 
Mixed  grains. .  . 


Total  Yields. 


199.236,000 

44,014,000 

361,733.000 

2,594.000 

3.773.500 

1,040,800 

10,193,000 

17,952,000 


Crops. 

Flaxseed bu. 

Corn  (maize) " 

Potatoes " 

Turnips  and  other  roots.  .   " 

Hay  and  clover tons 

Fodder  corn " 

Sugar  beets " 

Alfalfa " 


Total  Yields. 


21,681,500 

16,569,800 

81,343.000 

87.505,000 

I  i,i8q,ooo 

2,858,900 

204,000 

310,100 


426 


GENERAL  TOPICS. 


AVERAGE  COST  PEH  ACRE  OF  RAISING  WHEAT, 
CORN,  AXD  COTTON  IN  THi:  UNITED  STATES. 

1893.* 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agricul'Lure.) 


Rent  of  land 

Manure  or  fertilizers . . . 

Preparing  ground     

Seed 

Sowing  or  planting  . .    . . 

Cultivating . . 

Harvesting,  gathering,  or  picking. 

Thrashing 

Ginning  and  pressing 

Housing 

Repairing  imj/lcnents 

Marketing 

Other  expenses 


Total. $11.69 


Wheat. 

Corn. 

$2.81 
2 .  16 
1.87 

.96 
•37 

$3  03 

1.80 
1.62 

.42 
1.80 

1. 19 
1.20 

1 .22 

•37 

■50 

.76 

1.26 

$11.69 

1 

$.1.71 

Cotton, 
Upland. 


^2.88 
1 .46 
2.81 
.21 
.28 
'•31 
3-37 

1*65 

•4« 
.64 
.41 


$15.42 


Cotton, 
Seab'd. 


$2.36 

3-75 

3^65 

•33 

.46 

I   73 
5»7 

2.61 

.91 
•51 

I21.95 


AVERAGE    FAR:>I 
PRODI  CTS    0.\ 
TO     1910. 


PRICE    OF    VARIOI  S    AGRICULTURAL 
i)Kl.     I     l\     I:A(  H     YEAR    FROM     1890 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Crop. 


Corn  per  bushel .  .  .  . 
Wheat  "       .... 

Rye  "       

Oats  "      .  .  .  . 

Barley  "      .  .  .  . 

Buckwheat  "       .  .  .  . 
Irish  pota's  "      .  .  .  . 

Hay  per  ton 

Cotton  per  lb 

Leaf  tobacco,  per  lb 


1890 


$ 
0.506 
.838 
.629 
.424 
.648 
.577 
■  111 

.086 
.077 


1895 


'.253 
.50Q 
.440 
.199 
.337 
.4S2 
.266 

i.35 
.076 
.089 


1900 

1905 

$ 

1 

0.357 

0.288 

619 

.748 

512 

.611 

258 

.  291 

408 

.403 

558 

.587 

431 

.617 

8 

89 

8.52 
.  105 

.085 

1910 


0.480 

.883 
.715 

•  344 

•  578 
.661 
.557 

12 .  26 
.142 
093 


*  Data  for  wheat  and  corn  consolidated  from  returns  from  nearly 
30,000  leading  farmers  scattered  throughout  the  United  States.  The 
data  for  cotton  were  secured  in  1897,  and  are  the  averages  of  returns 
from  over  3400  planters. 


STATISTICAL  TABLES. 


427 


NUMBER    AND    VALUE    OF    FARM    ANIMALS    IN    THE 
UNITED  STATES,   1880-1910.       (U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Farm  Animals. 

Jan.  I,  1880. 

Jan.  I,  1890. 

Jan.  I,  1900. 

Jan.  I,  1910. 

Horses,  number 

11,201,800 

14,213.837 

13.537.524 

21,040,000 

value.  . 

$613,296,611 

$978,516,562 

$603,969,442 

$2,276,363,000 

Mules,    number 

1,729.500 

2,332,027 

2,086,027 

4.123,000 

value.  . 

$105,948,319 

$182,394,099 

$111,717,092 

$494,095,000 

Milch  cows,  No. 

12,027,000 

15,952,883 

16,292,360 

21,801,000 

value.  . 

$279,899,420 

$352,152,133 

$514,812,106 

$780,308,000 

Other  cat.,  No. 

21,321,000 

36,849,024 

27,610,054 

47,279.000 

value.  . 

$341,761,154 

$560,625,137 

$689,486,260 

$917,453,000 

Sheep,     number 

40,765,900 

44,336,072 

41.883.065 

57,216,000 

value.  . 

$90,230,537 

$100,659,761 

$122,665,913 

$233,664,000 

Swine,     number 

34.034.100 

51,602,780 

37.079.000 

47,782,000 

value .  . 

$145,781,515 

$243,418,336 

$85,472,321 

$436,603,000 

Total    value    of 

farm  animals. 

$1,576,917,556 

$2,418,766,028 

$2,228,123,134 

$5,138,486,000 

VALUES     OF     FARM     PROPERTY     AND     PRODUCTS     IN 
CANADA,    1901. 

(Census  of  1901.) 


Farm  property,  1 90 1 . 

Total  value $1,787,102,630 

Land  and  buildings.  .  .  1,403,269,501 
Implements    and    ma- 
chinery   108,665,502 

Horses 118,279,418 

Milch  cows 69,237,970 

Other  horned  cattle..  .  54,197,341 

Sheep 10,490,594 

Swine 16,445,702 

Poultry 5,723,890 

Bees 792,711 


Agricultural  products,  1 90 1 . 

Total  value $364,006,866 

Field  crops 194,053.420 

Fruits  and  vegetables  _.  .  12,994,900 
Nursery    stock    sold    in 

year 469,501 

Live  stock  sold  in  year.  52,755,375 
Meats,  etc.,  of  animals 

slaughtered  on  farm .  22,951,527 

Dairy  products 66,470,953 

Wool 1,887.064 

Eggs 10,286,828 

Honey  and  wax 356,816 

Maple  sugar 1,780,482 


NUMBER  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  AND  ANOIAL  PRODUCTS  IN 

CANADA,    1901. 

(Census  of  1901.) 


Horses  over  3  years  old  .  .  1,304,910 

Horses  under  3  years  old .  .  272,583 

Milch  cows 2,408,677 

Other  homed  cattle 3.167,774 

Sheep 2,510,239 

Swine 17,922,658 

Poultry 189,986 

Hives  of  bees 2,353,828 


Cattle,  killed  or  sold.  ...  1,110,209 

Sheep,  killed  or  sold  ...  .  1,342,288 

Swine,  killed  or  sold  .  .  . .  2, 555. 41 3 

Potiltry,  killed  or  sold  ..  7.063,597 

Butter,  home  made,  lbs.  105,343,076 

Wool,  lbs 10  657.597 

Honey,  lbs 3.569,567 

Eggs,  doz 84,132,802 


428 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


BREEDS   AND   NUMBER  OF    REGISTERED    LIVE    STOCK 
IN    THE    UNITED    STATES,    DEC.    31,     1905. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Breed. 


Cattle:  Aberdeen-Angus 

Ayrshire 

Devon 

Dutch-belted 

Galloway 

Guernsey 

Hereford 

Holstein-Friesian 

Jersey 

Polled  Durham 

Red  Polled 

Shorthorn 

Sussex 

Swiss,  Brown 

Horses:  Cleveland  Bay 

Clydesdale 

Coach,  French 

"        German 

Oldenburg 

Draft,  Belgian 

' '        French 

Hackney  t 

Morgan  t 

Percheron 

(Ohio) 

Saddle  Horse,  American , 

Shetland  Pony 

Shire 

Suffolk 

Thoroughbred 

Trotter,  American 

Jacks  and  Jennies 

Cheviot 

Cotswold 

Dorset  Horn 

Hampshire  Down 

Leicester 

Lincoln 

Merino  (Delaine,  Ohio.)  .  . 

"        (       "  •')... 

"       (       "         Pa.)t.  .. 

(       "  ").... 

(French) 

(German) 

(Spanish,  Mich.).  . 
Ohio)... 
N.  Y.)  . 

"     ).  . 
Vt.).  .  .. 


Sheep: 


Oxford  Dow 


Number 
Male. 


Regis- 
tered 
Female. 


38,188 
9,689 
8.084 

573 

16,620 

io,6Ss 

II  2,783 

46,031 

71.907 

5,403 

14,601 

249,800 

78 

2,159 

1,236 

12,370 

130 

1,656 

260 

2,056 

9,000 

726 

5  021 

1,640 

928 

2,529 

2,300 

6,062 

159 

45,309 

42,5971  152,700 

i.oool  750 

10,700 

36,610 


48,604 
20,883 

13,717 
1,26s 

1 1,080 

19,889 

1 1  5,620 

95.037 

193,978 

6,460 

25,006 

391 ,600 

185 

3,150 
502 


4 
246 

23 
266 

5,000 
1.542 
2,880 
1,460 
102 

3.549 

3.500 

2,148 

88 


1,395 
5,573 
3,538 
5,754 


3,703 

12,844 

5.437 

8,246 


8,000 
5,054 
6,805 


9,401 


14,300 
11,259 
11.599 


34.075 
162 


12,550 

16,691 

7.916 

1.275 


191 

37,700 

33,384 

1 1 ,91  2 

1,500 


217,850 
32,798t 


Number  Living. 


Male.     Female. 


27,496 
* 

3.500 
* 

8,370 

6,000 

45.000 

14.199 

* 

3.935 

5.500 

87.430 

50 

300 

1,050 

* 

125 

1,500 

190 

2,05s 
* 

684 

3,765 

19,000 

913 


2,000 
* 


34.994 

10,000 
* 

6,480 
I  2  000 
60,000 

31,756 
* 

4.845 

10,500 

176,220 

100 

1,500 

400 

4 

225 

14 
265 

I  416 

2,100 

I  2,000 

94 


2,500 


150 


750 

575 

14,000 
1,000 
3,000 
2,972 
4,100 


6,900 


2,500 
1,500 
1,500 
* 

105 
400 
2,842 
280 
100 

* 

* 


* 
* 

500 
2,650 

2,800 
9,000 

4,567 
5.900 

8,000 
3,000 
5,000 
* 

175 
4,300 
8.035 
1,875 

200 


*  No  data. 


t  Eitimates  for  1904. 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


429 


BREEDS  AND  NU3IBERS   OF  REGISTERED  LIVE   STOCK 
IN  THE   UNITED   STATES— Continued. 


Breed. 


Number 
Male. 


Sheep  (Continued). 

Shropshire 

South  Down 

Suffolk    

Hogs:   Berkshire 

Cheshire 

Chester,  White 

Ohio  Impr 

Duroc  Jersey  (Ind.).  . .  . 

"       (111.) 

Hampshire  (Thin  Rind) 

Poland  China  (111.) 

"      (Ind.).... 

"      (Mo.) 

"  "      (Tenn.).  . 

Tamworth  t 

Yorkshire 


Regis- 
tered 
Female. 


100,000   134 

19.933 

1013 

88,080 

Ii225 
5.665 
3.403 
8,026 
21,800 
294 

52,331 

32  000 

39,008 

691 

1,949 

2, 860 1   3 


55 

130 
72 
93 


115 
912 

000 
450 
,000 
540 
620 
,000 
234 
,030 

,640 


Number  Living. 


Male.     Femal 


20,000     40. 
10,200 

550 
33,000 
2751 

600  2, 
i,8oo|  6, 
*  * 

30,000 


575 
000 
200 


155 

387 

27,000 

68,000 

10,000 

23,000 

2,000 

18,000 

400 

600 

1,200 
2,ooo|        3, 


*  No  data. 


t  Estimates  for  1904. 


PURE-BRED    CATTLE    OF    BREEDS    USED    FOR 
DAIRYING.     (U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

Estimates  of  numbers  living  in  the  United  States,  1905,  and  values  of  same. 


Breeds. 

Num-  1     Est. 

ber           No. 

Regis-      Liv- 

tered.       ing. 

Av. 

Val. 

per 

Headt 

Breeds. 

Num- 
ber 
Regis- 
tered. 

Est. 
No. 
Liv- 
ing. 

Av. 

Val. 

per 

Headt 

\yrshire..  .  .  . 
Brown-Swiss. 

Devon 

Dutch  Belted 

Guernsey.  .  .  . 

Holstein-Frie- 

sian 

30,572        * 

5,309     1,800 
21 ,801    i3,soo 
.   1.838        * 
30,572   18,000 

141,068  45,955 

$100 

75 

75 

200 

140 

130 

Tersev  .  .  .  . 
Polled  Dur- 
ham .... 
1  Red  Polled, 
t  Shorthorn 

265,885 

11,863 

39.607 

641,400 

* 

8,780 

16,000 

263,650 

$100 
80 

ISO 

170 

*  No  data.        t  Figures  published  1903. 


t  Chiefly  beef  stock. 


430 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


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STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


433 


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434 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


STATISTICS     OF     BUTTER,      CHEESE,     AND    CON 
DENSED-MILK     FACTORIES      IN     THE     UNITED 

STATES. 

(Twelfth  Census.) 


Totals  for  the  United  States. 


Number  of  establishments  reporting 

Capital  employed,  total dollars 

Land 

Buildings 

Machinery,  tools,  and  implements.  ...      " 

Cash  and  sundries 

Employes average  number 

Total  wages  paid dollars 

Materials  used: 

Aggregate  cost dollars 

For  butter: 

Gathered  cream pounds 

Milk " 

Total  cost dollars 

For  cheese: 

Milk pounds 

Cost dollars 

For  condensed  milk : 

Milk pounds 

Sugar " 

Total  cost dollars 

Products: 

Aggregate  value dollars 

Btitter  made: 

Packed  solid pounds 

Prints  or  rolls " 

Total  value dollars 

Cream  sold gallons 

Value.  . dollars 

Skim    milk    sold,    fed,    or    returned    to 

patrons •.  .  .pounds 

Value dollars 

All  other  creamery  products " 

Cheese,  standard  factory: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Cheese,  all  other  made: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Whey  sold pounds 

otherwise  used " 

Total  value dollars 

All  other  cheese-factory  products      " 
Condensed  milk: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 


IQOO. 


Butter  and 

Cheese 
Factories. 


9,242 

36,303,164 

1,818,519 

1 1,514,198 

13,827,667 

9,142,780 

12,799 

6,145,561 

108,841,200 

203,673,958 

8,514,806,634 

73,489.355 

2,741,898,1 14 
21,258,712 

421,378,073 

50.873,859 

7,252,124 

130,783.349 

328,956,590 
91,169,956 

84.079,754 
7,720,569 
4,435,444 

2,253.494.156 
2,531,460 
1,023,402 

225,776,105 
21,363.477 

56,196,219 

5.156,352 

44.590,752 

164,476,195 

204,277 

66,711 

186,921,787 
11,888,792 


Urban 
Estabs. 


»I3 

204,851 

29.875 
42,246 
69,485 
63.245 
66 
25,109 

310,005 

1,066,756 

20,104,778 

250,670 

7,415,490 
44,755 


415,928 

334.588 
492,882 
195,662 
164,1 14 
1 12,09? 

5.517.877 

24,008 

583 

360,450 
36,050 

301,714 
14,601 
75,000 


75 
SO* 


STATISTICAL   TOPICS. 


435 


BUTTER  AND   CHEESE  3IAKING   IN   CANADA,    1901. 

(Census  of  1901.) 


Number  of  factories . .  3,576 

Value      of      buildings 

and  plant $6,164,649 

Persons  employed.  .  .  6,886 

Aggregate    working 

days. 

Salaries  and  wages.  .  . 
Cream  for  butter,  in.  . 
Cream  for  butter,  lbs. 
Milk  for  cheese,  lbs.  . 
Cost    of    delivery    to 

factory 


1,140,702 

$1 ,464.110 

3,9^6,406 

88,180,441 

2,296,950,966 

$717,868 


Patrons  of  butter  fac- 
tories. . 76,394 

Patrons   or   cheese   fac- 
tories   124,726 

Paid  patrons  for  butter.  $6,036,699 
cheese. $19, 265, 83  2 

Butter  made,  lbs 36,066,739 

Cheese  made,  lbs 220,833  269 

Value  of  butter  made  .  .    $7,240,972 
cheese      ''     .  .$22,221,430 

Total  value  of  prodvicts.$29,462,402 


WOOL    PRODUCT    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES,  lOl*:. 

Total. 
Number  of  sheep  of  shearing  age,  April  i,  1912..        38,481,000 

Average  weight  of  fleece,  lbs 6.82 

Shrinkage,  per  cent 55.0 

Wool,  washed  and  unwashed,  lbs 304,043,400 

Wool,  scoured,  lbs 136,866,652 


PRODUCTION    OF    SUGAR    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES, 

1870-1911. 


Beet 
Sugar, 

Long 
Tons. 

Cane  Sugar,  Long  Tons. 

Year. 

Louisi-     Other 

Porto 
Rico. 

Philip- 
Hawaii,      pine 
Islands. 

Total. 

1870-71 
1880-81 
1890-91 
1900-01 
1910-11 

400 

500 

3,459 

76,859 

455,511 

75,392 
121,867 
215,844 
275,579 
306,000 

4,208 
5,500 

6,107 

2,891 
11,000 

103,304 
61,715 
50,000 
72,800 

312.357 

87.465 

41,870  205.508 
125,000   136,035 
321,461     55,244 
506,090  147,016 

270,769 
436,960 
536,445 
804.834 
1.737.974 

43  G 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


STATISTICS     OF     SUGAR-BEET     FACTORIES     IN     THE 
UNITED    STATES   FOR   1912. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


California 

Colorado 

Michigan 

I  laho  and  Utah  . 
0.,lnd.,  111..  Wis. 
Other  States.  . . . 

United  States.  .  . 


o 

X.  c 

"^  1) 

tc-rr 

°-c 

c  rt 

u  o 

o  a 

-1  B 

3*^ 

•   c3 

/^ 

< 

Days 

II 

90 

I? 

91 

lO 

74 

ID 

«7 

II 

87 

8 

88 

73 

86 

w 


Short- 
tons. 
158.904 
216,010 
95.049 
84.332 
57.921  * 
80,340 


692.556 


Acres. 

1 11,416 

144.999 

124.241 

56.952 

53.986 

63.706 


"a; 

.   O 


Sh'rt 
tons. 
9.01 


•c 


Dol- 
lars. 
46 


555.300 


11.32  5.96 
6.75  5.69 

10.81  4.97 
9 .  tjo  5  .  60 
9-25  5. 81 


9.41  582 


U  U] 

<U  O 

1*1.  u 

■^  o 


I-  a 
.  o 

<U(J 


Per 
cent. 
18.79J84.0 
16. 19  84.8 
14.72  83. " 


16.65 
14-43 
16.61 


16.31 


86.8 
82.3 
84.1 


84.5 


*  Including  estimates  of  one  factory,  based  on  acreage  of  beets. 


PRODUCTION    OF    CANE-   AND    BEET-SUGAR,    190.3-11. 


The  World. 

The  United  States. 

Cane. 

Beet. 

Cane. 

Beet. 

Tons.* 

Tons.* 

Tons.* 

Tons.* 

I903-I904 

6,086.149 

6,096.178 

602,903 

208.135 

1904- 1905 

6,754.328 

4.926.456 

875.576 

209.722 

I905-I906 

6,602,133 

7,265,136 

922,000 

283,717 

I906-I907 

7,468,900 

6,774.400 

820.700 

432,000 

I907-I908 

7.076.800 

6.598.000 

1,022,400 

414,000 

1908- 1909 

7.726.500 

6,562.000 

1.095.400 

380,000 

I909-I9IO 

8.412,995 

6,241,630 

1. 071. 095 

447.930 

1910-IgII 

8.429.300 

8,040,800 

1. 135. 400 

456,000 

*  Long  tons,  except  in  case  of  European  beet-sugar  production,  which 
is  given  in  metric  tons  (2204.6  lbs.). 


STATISTICAL    TABLES. 


43? 


MAPLE-SUGAR  AXD  SIRUP,  AND  SORGHUM  SIRUP 
PRODUCED   IN  THE    UNITED  STATES,   1899. 

(Twelfth  Census.) 


Sugar. 

Sirup. 

Value  of  Products. 

Sugar. 

Sirup. 

Maple , 

Sorghum 

Pounds. 
11,928,770 

Gallons. 

2,056,611 

16,972,783 

Dollars. 
1,074,260 

Dollars. 

1,562,451 

5,288,083 

STATISTICS  OF  THE  LUMBER  INDUSTRY  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES,    1906.     (U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Lumber. 


Yellow  pine  .... 

Douglas  fir 

White  pine 

Hemlock 

Oak 

Spruce  

Western  pine  .  .  . 

Maple 

Cj'press 

Poplar 

Redwood 

Red  gum 

Che.stnut 

Basswood 

Bii  .,li 

Cedar 

Hickory 

Total  hardwoods 
"      softwootls  . 


Leading 
State. 


La. 

U.  S. 

Wash. 

U.S. 

Minn. 

U.  S. 

Penna. 

U.  S. 

Ky. 

U.S. 

Me. 
U.S. 
CaUf. 
U.S. 
Mich. 
U.S. 

La. 
U.S. 

Ky. 
U.S. 
Calif. 
Ark. 
U.S. 
Penna. 

u,  s. 

Wise. 
U.S. 
Wise. 

u.  s. 

AVash. 

U.S. 
Ark. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 


Cut, 
M.  Feet. 


2,1 20, 
1 1,661, 

3,405. 
4,969, 
1,664, 

4,583, 
966, 

3,537, 
339, 

2,820, 
557, 

1,644, 

347. 
1,386, 
492, 
882, 
573, 
839, 
160, 
683, 
659, 
140, 

453. 

73 

407 

1  62 

37''^ 

151 

370 

236 

357 

23 

148 

7,315 

30,235 


615 
077 
510 
843 
734 
727 
480 
329 
829 

393 
975 
987 
249 

777 
845 
87S 
096 
276 
123 
132 
678 
819 
678 
096 
,370 
155 
,838 
,063 
,432 
,648 
,845 
.3^4 
,212 

,491 
,245 


Per 
Cent. 


18.2 
68'.s' 


36-2 
27-3 


12.0 
33'.8' 


25.0 
55*8 


68.3 
23.4 


100  .0 
31  .0 


18.0 
430 


40.8 
66.2 


15.8 


:;::) 


Total 
Value. 


$31,919,636 

175,178,446 

48,841,166 

70,567,141 

29,072,499 

83.952,701 

16,589,522 

54,153,242 

6,667,701 

61,377,266 

9,802,083 

28,515,439 
4,826,436 

19,423,937 
7,096,204 
13,714,083 
1 2,849,91 1 
18,403,392 
3,732,465 
16,538,260 

10,978,759 
1,774.394 
6,102.886 
1,268.980 
7,128.864 
2,890,178 
7,029,050 
2,334,163 
6,384.705 

4,415,054 

6,484,600 

902,201 

4,508,583 

621,151,388 


Mill 

Value 
per  M. 
Feet. 


>1505 

15  02 
1434 
14  .  20 
17.46 
18.32 
17.16 

15-31 
19.62 
21.76 
17-57 
17.33 
13.90 
14.01 
14.40 

15-53 
22.42 
21  .94 

23-31 
24.  21 

16  .64 
I  2  .60 
13.46 
17-36 
17-49 
17-82 
18.66 

15-45 
17-24 
18.66 
18.12 
38-62 
30.42 
16  .60 


438 


GENERAL    TOPICS. 


POULTRY  AND   EGG  PRODUCTS  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES.     (Tenth  to  Twelfth  Censuses.) 


Production  of  eggs,  dozen.. 

Price  per  dozen,  cents 

Value  of  poultry 

"       "  eggs 

Poultry  on  hand,  June  i : 

Chickens* 

Turkeys 

Geese 

Ducks 

Total 


1879- 


456,911,960 


102,265,653 


1S89. 


819,722,916 


258,871,125 

10.754,060 

8.440,175 

7,544,080 

285,609,440 


1899. 


1,293,819,186 
I .  I 

,891.877 
286,158 


$136, 
$144, 


233 
6 

5 

4 

250 


,508,085 
,500,367 
676,863 
.807.358 
.681,593 


*  Including  Guinea  fowls. 

PRODU  CTION  OF  HONEY  AND  BEESWAX  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  ACCORDING  TO  CENSUS  RE- 
TURNS OF    1869,    1879,    1889,  AND    1899. 


1869. 

1879. 

1889. 

1899- 

Honey,  lbs 

Beeswax,  lbs 

14,702.815 
631,129 

25.741,485 
1,105.556 

63.894.186 
1,166,543 

61,196,160 
1.765,315 

BEES,  HONEY,  AND  WAX  PRODUCED  IN  THE 
UNITED     STATES. 

(Twelfth  Census.) 

Swarms  of  bees,  June  i,  1900 4,109,625 

Value  of  bees $10,186,513 

Pounds  of  honey  produced  in  1899 61 ,106,160 

"     wax           "           "      "    1,765,315 

Value  of  honey  and  wax  produced  in  1899 $6  664,904 


STATISTICAL  TABLES. 


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GENERAL   TOPICS. 


I  DOMESTIC    EXPORTS    OF    BUTTER    AND    CHEESE, 

1870-1912. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Butter. 

Cheese. 

Year. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

1870 

2,019.288 

$592,229 

57,296,327 

$8,881,934 

1875 

6,360,827 

1,506,996 

101,010,853 

13,659.603 

1880 

39,236,658 

6,690,687 

127,553,907 

12,171,720 

1885 

21,683,148 

3.643,646 

111,992,990 

10,444,409 

1890 

29,748.042 

4.187.489 

95,376,053 

8,591,042 

1895 

5,598,812 

915,533 

60,448,421 

5.497,539 

1900 

18,266,371 

3,143,509 

48,419,353 

4,943,609 

1905 

10,071,487 

1,648,281 

10.134,424 

1.084,044 

1910 

3.140,545 

785,771 

2,846,709 

441.017 

1911 

4.877,797 

1,059.432 

10,366,605 

1.288,279 

1912 

6,092,235 

1.468,432 

6,337,559 

898,035 

EXPORTS     OF     DAIRY     PRODUCTS     FROM     CANADA, 

1870-1910. 

(The  Canada  Year-Book.) 


Butter. 

Cheese. 

Year. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

1870 

12,260,887 

12.353,570 

5.827,782 

$    674.486 

1875 

0,268,044 

2,337.324 

32,342,030 

3,886.226 

1880 

18,535,362 

3,058,069 

40,368,678 

3.893,366 

1885 

7,330,788 

1,430,905 

79,655,367 

8,265,240 

1890 

1.951.585 

340.131 

94.260,187 

9,372.212 

1895 

3,650,258 

697,476 

146,004.650 

14,253,002 

1900 

25.259,737 

5,122,156 

185.984.430 

19.856.324 

1901 

16,335.528 

3,295.663 

195,926,397 

20,696,051 

1902 

27,855.978 

5.660.541 

200,946,401 

19.686,291 

1903 

34,128,944 

6.954,618 

229,099,925 

24,712,943 

1904 

24,568,001 

4,724,155 

233,980,716 

24,184,566 

1905 

31.764.303 

5,930,379 

215.733.259 

20,300,500 

1906 

34,031,525 

7.075.539 

215,834,543 

24,433,169 

1907* 

18,078,508 

4,011,609 

178,141,567 

22,006,584 

1908 

4,786,954 

1,068,703 

189,710,463 

22,887.237 

1909 

6,326,355 

1,521.436 

164,907.139 

20,384,666 

1910 

4,615,380 

1,010,274 

180,859.886 

21,607,692 

*  Nine  months. 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


447 


THE    FERTILIZER    INDUSTRY   OF   THE  UNITED 

STATES.     (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,) 


Tons 

(of  2000  lbs.). 

Value 

(wholesale). 

Commercial  fertilizers  sold  in  1896, 

in  23  Eastern  and  Central  States .   ... 

in  rest  of  United  Slates 

1,624,063 
270.854 

$32,301,582 
5,387.287 

Total  for  the  United  States   

1,894,917 

$37,688,869 

(retail) 
11,449,069 

18,759,^39 

3.067,515 

4.952.013 

241,862 

Census  returns,  1890,  value  of  fertilizers  pur- 
chased: 
North  Atlantic  Division 

South  Atlantic         "           

North  Central           "         

South  Central           "         

Western                    "         

Total  for  the  United  States 

S3».469,598 

IMPORTS    AND    EXPORTS    OF    FERTILIZERS    IN 

1896.     (U.  S.  Treasury  Department.) 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Value 
per  Ton. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Value 
per  Ton. 

37S.7-33-93 

$7,376,615 

$19.04 

514,143 

$4,400,593 

$8.56 

IMPORTS 


FERTILIZERS    AND 
MATERIALS,   1896. 


FERTILIZER 


Articles. 


Ammonia,  sulfate  of 

Apatite   .. 

Ashes,  wood  and  lye  of,  and  beet-root  ashes 

Blood,  dried  ... .      .    

Bone-dust  or  animal  carbon,  and  bone-ash, 

fit  only  for  fertilizing  purposes 

Bones,  crude,  burned,  calcined,  ground  or 

steamed  

Cotton-seed  meal  and  cake 

Guano   

Kieserite,  cyanite,  and  kainit 

Lime 

Oil-cake    

Phosphates,  crude  or  native 

Potash,  muriate  of 

Potash,  sulfate  of 

Soda,  nitrate  of,  or  cubic  nitrate 

All  substances,  not  otherwise  specified 

Total 


Tons. 


12,270.70 
434.00 


2,983.00 


325 

5.^-72 

67,192 

21,403 
8.911 

20,562 

43,438 

7.423 

145.456 

40,259 


375.733-93 


Value. 


$480,971 

3.030 
67,394 
1,014* 

37.992 

154,610 

3.170 

52.697 

320,765 
76,302 
52.867 

153,370 

',372,743 
269,810 

3,870,734 
460,160 

$7,376,615 


Value 
per  Ton. 


$39.20 
6.98 


12.74 


9-74 
10.39 

4-77 
3-57 
5-93 
7.46 
31.60 

36.34 
26.61 

"•43 


$1964 


*  T.n 


448 


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452  GENERAL  TOPICS. 


VI.  DIRECTORY. 

DIRECTORY   OF   OFFICIAL.   AGRICULTURAL. 
INSTITUTIONS. 

Organization  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
AVasliington,  D.  C. 

Secretary  of  Agriculture — D.  F.  Houston. 

Assistant  Secretary  of  Agriculture — B.  T.  Galloway. 

Weather  Bureau — II.  E.  Williams,  Acting  Chief. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry — A,  D.  Melvin,  Chief. 

Dairy  Division — B.  H.  Rawl,  Chief. 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry — Wm.  A.  Taylor,  Pathologist, 
Physiologist  and  Chief. 

Forest  Service — Henry  S.  Graves,  Forester  and  Chief. 

Bureau  of  Chemistry — Carl  L.  Alsberg,  Chemist  and  Chief. 

Bureau  of  Soils — Milton  Whitney,  Soil  Physicist  and  Chief. 

Bureau  of  Entomology — L.  O.  Howard,  Entomologist  and 
Chief. 

Bureau  of  Biological  Survey — H.  W.  Henshaw,  Biologist 
and  Chief. 

Bltieau  of  Statistics — Victor  H.  Olmsted,  Statistician  and 
Chief. 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations — A.  C.  True,  Director. 

Office  of  Public  Roads — L.  W.  Page,  Director. 

Division  of  Publications — ^Jos.  A.  Arnold,  Editor  and  Chief. 

Division  of  Accounts  and  Disbursements — A.  Zappone, 
Chief  and  Disbursing  Clerk. 

Libr.\ry — Claribel  R.  Barnett,  Librarian. 


i 


DIRECTOKY.  453 


Canada. 


Ministers  of  Agriculture — 

Dominion,  Martin  Burrell,  Ottawa. 

Prov.  of  Ontario,  Nelson  Monteith,  Toronto. 

Prov.  of  Quebec,  A.  Tessier,  Quebec. 

Prov.  of  British  Columbia,  R.  G.  Tatlow,  Victoria. 

Prov.  of  Manitoba,  R.  P.  Roblin,  Winnipeg. 
Commissioners  of  Agriculture — 

New  Brunswick,  L.  P.  Farris,  Fredericton. 

N.  W.  Territories,  G.  H.  V.  Bulyea,  Regina. 

Pr.  Edw.  Island,  Benjamin  Rogers,  Charlottetown. 
Secretary  of  Agriculture — 

Nova  Scotia,  B.  W.  Chipman,  Halifax. 
Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Mines — 

Newfoundland,  Eli  Dawe,  St.  Johns. 


State  Officials  in  Ciiarge  of  Agriculture  in  the  United  States. 

Commissioners  of  Agriculture — Montgomery,  Ala.;  Little 
Rock,  Ark.;  Tallahassee,  Fla.;  Atlanta,  Ga.;  Boise,  Idaho; 
Frankfort,  Ky.;  Baton  Rouge,  La.;  Augusta,  Me.;  Jackson, 
Miss.;  Helena,  Mont.;  Albany,  N.  Y.;  Raleigh,  N.  C;  Bis- 
marck, N.  D.;  Harrisburg,  Pa.;  Manila,  P.  I.;  San  Juan, 
P.  R.;  Columbia,  S.  C;  Nashville,  Tenn.;  Austin,  Texas; 
Plainfield,  Vt.;  and  Richmond,  Va. 

Secretaries  of  State  Boards  of  Agriculture — Sacra- 
mento, Cal.;  Fort  Collins,  Colo.;  Hartford,  Conn.;  Dover, 
Del,;  Honolulu,  H.  L;  Springfield,  111.;  Indianapolis,  Ind.; 
Des  Moines,  la.;  Topeka,  Kan.;  Baltimore,  Md.;  Boston,  Mass.; 
East  Lansing,  Mich;  St.  Paul,  Minn.;  Columbia,  Mo.;  Lin- 
coln, Neb.;  Carson  City,  Nev.;  Concord,  N,  H.;  Trenton, 
N.  J.;  Columbus,  Ohio;  Oklahoma  City,  Okla.;  Salem,  Ore.; 
Providence,  R.  I.;  Huron,  S.  D.;  Charleston,  W.  Va.;  Madison, 
Wis.;  and  Cheyenne,  Wyo. 

Secretaries  of  State — Tucson,  Ariz.;  Santa  Fe,  N.  M.; 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah;   and  Olympia,  Wash, 


454 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


EDUCATIONAL.  INSTITUTIONS  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES  AND  CANADA  HAVING  COURSES  IN 
AGRICULTURE.      (U.   S    Department  of  Agriculture.) 


State. 

Name  of  Institxition 

Locality. 

Alabama 

Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute.  . 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Col- 

letje  for  Negroes   

Auburn 
Normal 

Arizona 

University  of  Arizona 

University  of  Arkansas 

Tucson 
Favetteville 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut.  .  .  . 

University  of  California 

State  Agricultural  College 

Conn.  Agricultural  Co  liege 

Delaware  College 

Berkeley 
Fort  Collins 
Storrs 
Newark 

Florida 

State  College  for  Colored  Stud'ts. 
University  of  Florida 

Dover 

Florida  State  Normal  and  Indus- 
trial College 

Tallahassee 

Georgia 

State  College  of  Agriculture  and 
Mechanic  Arts    

Athens 

State  Industrial  College 

Universitv  of  Idaho 

Savannah 
Moscow 

Universitv  of  Illinois 

Urban a 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Lafayette 

State  College  of  Agriculture  and 

the  Mechanic  Arts 

Kansas   State   Agricultural   Col- 

Kansas 

Ames 
Manhattan 

Kentucky 

Agricultural      and      Jklechanical 
College 

Lexington 

State  Normal  School  for  Colored 
Students   

Frankfort 

Louisiana 

State  University  and  Agriculture]] 
and  Mechanical  College 

Southern   University   and   Agri- 
cultural and   Mechanical  Col- 

Baton  Rouge 
New  Orleans 

Maine 

The  University  of  Main^ 

Maryland  Agricultural  College.  .. 

Princess  Anne  Academy,  Eastern 

Br..  Maryland  Agricul.  Coll..  . 

Massachusetts  Agricultural  Col- 

Orono 

Maryland 

Massachusetts.  . 

College  Park 
Princess  Anne 
Amherst 

Michigan 

Michigan  State  Agricultural  Col- 

Agricultural  College 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

The  University  of  Minnesota.  .  .  . 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Col- 

Univ.  Farm.S.  Paul 
Agricultural  College 

Alcom  Agricultural  and  Mechan- 

Alcorn 

Missouri 

The  University  of  Missouri 

Columbia 
Jefferson  City 

Montana 

College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 

Bozeman 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire. 

The  Universitv  of  Nebraska 

Nevada  State  University 

College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 
chanic Arts 

Lincoln 
Reno 

Durham 

DIRECTORY,  465 

ED UCATIONALi  INSTITUTIONS— (Co«/WMe(i). 


State. 


Name  of  Institution. 


Locality. 


New  Jersey.  ..  . 
New  Mexico .  .  . 

New  York.    .  .  . 
North  Carolina 


North  Dakota. 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania  . . 
Porto  Rico .  .  .  , 
Rhode  Island   . 

South  Carolina 


South  Dakota. 

Tennessee.  ... 
Texas , 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 


Washington..  . 
West  Virginia. 

Wisconsin.     .. 
Wyoming.  .  .  . 


Rutgers  Scientific  School 

College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 
chanic Arts 

Cornell  University 

College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 
chanic Arts 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Col- 
lege for  the  Colored  Race 

North  Dakota  Agricultural  Col- 
lege  

Ohio  State  University.  .  .     

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Col- 
lege     

Agricultural    and    Normal    Uni- 

versitv 

Oregon  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege     

Pennsylvania  State  College I 

University  of  Porto  Rico 

College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 
chanic Arts 

Clemson  Agricultural  College.  .  .  . 
Colored  Normal,  Industrial,  Agri- 
cult^^ral,  and  Mechanical  Col- 
lege of  South  Carolina 

South  Dakota  Agricultural  Col 

lege    

University  of  Tennessee 

State  Agricultural  and  Mechan- 
ical College  of  Texas 

Prairie  View  State  Normal  School 
Agriculttiral  College  of  Utah.    . 
University  of  Vermont  and  State 

Agricultural  College 

Virginia  Agricultural  and  Me- 
chanical College  and  Polytech- 
nic Institvite 

Hampton  Normal  and  Agricul- 
tural Institute 

The  State  College  of  Washington 

West  Virginia  Universitv 

West  Virginia  Colored  Institute. 

University  of  Wisconsin 

University  of  Wyoming 


New  Brunswick 

State  College 
Ithaca 

W^  Raleigh 

Greensboro 

Agricultural  College 
Columbus 

Stillwater 

Langston 

Corvallis 
State  College 
Mayaguez 

Kingston. 
Clemson  College 

Orangeburg 

Brookings. 

Knoxville 

College  Station 
Prairie  View 
Logan 

Burlington 


Blacksburg 

Hampton 

Pullman 

Morgantown 

Institute 

Madison 

Laramie 


456 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


AMERICAN  VETERINARY  COL.L.EGES. 

California  Veterinary  College,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

National  Veterinary  College,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Chicago  Veterinary  College,  Chicago,  111. 

McKillip  Veterinary  College,  Chicago,  111. 

Veterinary    Department,     Iowa    State    Agricultural 
College,  Ames,  Iowa. 

School  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  Harvard  University, 
Boston,  Mass. 

Kansas  City  Veterinary  College,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

American  Veterinary  College,  University  of  the  State 
of  New  York,  New  York  City. 

New  York  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons,  New  York 
City. 

Veterinary  College,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

School  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  Ohio  State  University, 
Columbus,  O. 

Veterinary  Department,   University  of  Pennsylvania, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Ontario  Veterinary  College,  Toronto,  Canada. 

McGiLL  University,  Department  of  Comparative  Medicine, 
Montreal,  P.  Q.,  Canada. 

LIST   OF   STATE   VETERINARIANS. 


State  or 
Territory. 

Alabama.  .  .  . 

Arizona 

Arkansas.  .  .  . 
California. .  .  . 
Delaware.  .  .  . 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky.  .  . 
Louisiana. .  .  . 

Maine 

Maryland .... 
Massachusetts 
Michigan.  .  .  . 
Minnesota.  .  . 
Mississippi.  .  . 

Missouri , 

Montana.  . .  .  , 
Nebraska 


Post-office 
Address. 


Auburn 

Phoenix 

Fayette  ville 

Sacramento 

Wilmington 

Lake  City 

Atlanta 

Bois^ 

Princeton 

Lafayette 

Forest  City 

Peabody 

Louisville 

Baton  Rouge 

Saco 

Chestertown 

Boston 

Saline 

Minneapolis 

Agricul.  College 

Columbia 

Helena 

Lincoln 


State  or 
Territory. 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 
New  Jersey.  .  .  . 
New  Mexico.  . .  . 

New  York 

North  Carolina  . 
North  Dakota.  . 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania.  . . 
Rhode  Island. .  . 
South  Carolina. . 
South  Dakota.  . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington.  .  .  . 
West  Virginia.  . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


Post-office 
Address. 

Reno 

Concord 

Trenton 

Las  Vegas 

Albany 

Raleigh 

Fargo 

Columbus 

Guthrie 

Portland 

Philadelphia 

Providence 

Clemson  College 

Huron 

Murfreesboro 

Corpus  Christi 

Heber  City 

Morris  ville 

Blacksburg 

Pullman 

Charleston 

Madison 

Cheyenne 


DIRECTORY. 


457 


DAIKY    SCHOOLS  IN    THE    UNITED    STATES   AND 

CANADA. 


State  or 
Province. 


Alabama 

Colorado 

Connecticut.  ..  . 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Maine.  .    

Maryland 

Massachusetts.  . 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire 
New  York 


Location. 


Tuskegee 

Fort  Collins 

Storrs 

Experiment 

Moscow 

Urbana 

Lafayette 

Ames 

Manhattan 

Orono 

College  Park 

Amherst 

Agricultural  Col. 

Rt.AnthonyPark 

Agricultural  Col. 

Colunibia 

Lincoln 

Durham 

Ithaca 


State  or 
Province. 


North  Carolina. . 
North  Dakota.  . 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania.  .. 
South  Dakota.   . 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington.  .  .  . 

Wisconsin 

Ontario 

Quebec    

New  Brunswick 
Nova  Scotia.  .  . 
Manitoba 


Location. 


Raleigh 

Fargo 

Columbus 

Corvallis 

State  College 

Brookings 

College  Station 

Logan 

Burlington 

Blacksburg 

Pullman 

Madison 

Kingston 

Guelph 

Strathroy 

St.  Hyacinthe 

Sussex 

Nappan. 

Winnipeg 


SCHOOLS   OF   FORESTRY. 

Yale  Forest  School,  Yale  University,  New  Haven,  Conn, 

BiLTMORE    Forest  School,  Biltmore,    N.  C. 

University  of  Michigan  Forest  School,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

Howard  University  Forest  School,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanical 
Arts,  Forestry  Course,  Ames,  Iowa. 

University  of  Maine,  Department  of  Forestry,  Orono,  Me. 

Michigan  Agricultural  College,  Department  of  Forestry, 
Agricultural  College  P.  O.,  Mich. 

University  of  Minnesota,  Forest  School,  St.  Anthony  Park, 
Minn. 

University  of    California,  Forest  School,  Berkeley,  Cal. 


458 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


AGRICULTURAL    EXPERIMENT   STATIONS   IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES. 


State. 


Alabama  (College)..  .  , 
Alabama  (Canebrake) 
Alabama  (Tuskegee). 

Alaska , 

Arizona , 

Arkansas , 

California , 

Colorado 

Connecticut  (State)..  . 
Connecticut  (Storrs)  .  . 

Delaware , 

Florida , 

Georgia 

Guam. 

Hawaii 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana  (Sugar).  .  .  . 
Louisiana  (State).  .  .  . 
Louisiana  (North).  .  .. 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri  (College).  .  .  . 

Missouri  (Fruit) 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey  (State) .  .  . 
New  Jersey  (College). 

New  Mexico 

New  York  (State).  .  .  . 
New  York  (Cornell).  . 

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Porto  Rico 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming    


Location. 


Auburn 

Uniontown 

Tuskegee 

Sitka  Institute 

Tucson 

Fayetteville 

Berkeley 

Fort  Collins 

New  Haven 

Storrs 

Newark 

Gainesville 

Experiment 

Island  of  Guam.  .  .  .  . 

Honolulu 

Moscow 

Urbana 

Lafayette 

Ames 

Manhattan 

Lexington 

New  C)rleans 

Baton  Rouge 

Calhoun 

Orono 

College  Park 

Amherst 

East  Lansing 

Univ.  Farm,  St.  Paul. 
Agricultural  College. . 

Columbia 

Mountain  Grove.  .  .  . 

Bozeman 

Lincoln 

Reno 

Durham 

New  Brunswick 

New  Brunswick 

State  College 

Geneva 

Ithaca 

Raleigh 

Agricultural  College.  . 

Wooster 

Stillwater 

Corvallis 

State  College 

Mayaguez 

Kingston 

Clemson  College 

Brookings 

Knoxville 

College  Station 

Logan 

Burlington 

Blacksburg 

Pullman , 

Morgantown , 

Madison 

Laramie 


DIRECTORY. 


459 


Oanadiaii    FiXpcrinieiit    Stations. 

Central  Experimental  Farm — Ottawa,  Ont. 

Experimental  Farm — Nappan,  N.  S. 

"  "   — Brandon,  Manitoba. 

"  —Indian  Head,  N.  W.  T. 
"  "  — Agassiz,  B.  C. 

Experiment  Station — Ontario    Agriculturri    College,    Guelph, 

Ont. 

OFFICL4.LS  IN  CHARGE   OF  FARMERS'   INSTITUTES. 

(Farmers'    Institute    Specialist,    U.    S.    Dept.    of    Agriculttire,    John 
Hamilton,  Washington,  D.  C.) 


-^^ 


460  GENERAL   TOPICS. 


VII.    AGRICULTURAL     AND     DAIRY    LITER- 
ATURE. 

MORE     IMPORTANT     WORKS     ON     DAIRYING. 

American. 

Arnold,  American  Dairying.  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1S76.  (Out 
of  print.) 

Conn,  Practical  Bacteriology,  N.  Y.,  1907,  340  pp.     $1.25. 

Dean,  Canadian  Dairying.     Toronto,   1903.      260  pp.     $1.00. 

Decker,  Cheese  Making:  Cheddar,  Swiss,  Brick,  Edam, 
etc.  Fifth  edition,  by  F.  \V.  Woli.  Madison,  Wis.,  191 3. 
211  pp.     $1.75. 

Decker,  Elements  of  Dairying.  Columbus,  O.,  1903.  114 
pp.     $1.00. 

Eckles,  Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production.  N.  Y.,  191 1. 
$1.60. 

Farrington-Woll,  Testing  Milk  and  its  Products.  Twenty- 
second  edition.     INIadison,  Wis.,  1914.     297  pp.     $1.25. 

P1int,  Milch  Cows  and  Dairy  Farming.     Boston,  1888. 

Grotenfelt-WoU,  Modern  Dairy  Practice.  Third  edition,  re- 
vised.    New  York,  1910.     2S6  pp.     $2.00. 

Curler,  The  Farm  Dairy.     Chicago,  1908.     164  pp.     $1.00. 

Jensen-Pearson,  Essentials  of  Milk  Hygiene.  Philadelphia, 
1907.     275  pp.     $2.50. 

Lane,  Business  of  Dairying,     N.  Y.,  1909.     Si. 25. 

Larsen  and  White,  Dairy  Technology.     N..Y:,  1913.     $1.50. 

Michels,  Creamery  Butter  Making.  Lansing,  Mich.,  1904. 
271  pp.     Si.oo. 

McKay-Larsen,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Butter  Making. 
New  York,  1906.     329  pp.     $1.50. 

Monrad,  ABC  in  Cheese  Making.  Winnetka,  111.  Second 
edition.      68  pp.     50  cents. 

Monrad,  ABC  in  Butter  Making.  Winnetka,  111.,  1899. 
118  pp.     50  cents. 


AGRICULTURAL    AXD    DAIRY    LITERATURE.      4G1 

Monrad,  Pasteurization  and   Milk  Prescrv^ation.     Winnctka, 
111.     78  pp.     50  cents. 

Monrad,    Cheese    Making    in    Switzerland.     Winnctka,     111. 
68  pp.     50  cents. 

Rosenau,  The  Milk  Question.     Boston,  1912.     309  pp.    $2. 00. 

Russell,    Outlines    of    Dairy    Bacteriology.     Seventh    edition. 
]\Iadison,  Wis.,  1906.     190  pp.     $1.00. 

Snyder,  Dairy  Chemistry.     New  York,  1906.     190  pp.     $1.00. 

Schoenman,  Butter-fat  and  Dividend  Calculator.     Madison, 
Wis.,  1895.     66  pp.      $2.00. 

Van  Slyke,  IModern  ^Methods  of  Testing  Milk.     New  York, 
1906.     214  pp.     75  cents. 

Vye,   Creamery  Accounting.     Delano,  Minn.,   1S99.     42   pp. 
Si. GO. 

Ward,   Pure  ]\Iilk  and  the  Public  Health.     Ithaca,  N.   Y., 
1909.     218  pp. 

Willard,  Practical  Dairy  Husbandry.     N.  Y.,  1877.     546  pp. 

Wing,  Milk  and  its  Products.     N.  Y.,  191 2.     324  pp. 

Winslow,  The  Production  and  Handling  of  Clean  Milk.     New 
York.     1907.     207  pp. 

English. 

Fleischmann,  Book  of  the  Dairy.     London,  1896.     ids.  6d. 

Richmond,  Dairy  Chemistry.     London,  1899.     384  pp. 

Sheldon,  Dairy  Farming.     London.     570  pp.  4to. 

Sheldon,  The  Fanii  and  the  Dairy.     London,  1889.     154  pp. 
2S.  6d. 

Sheldon,  Briash  Dairying.     2d  cd.,  1896.      170  pp. 

Aikman,  Milk,  its  Nature  and  Composition.     London,   1895, 
1 80.  pp. 

Willoughby,   Milk,   its  Production  and   I'scs.      London,    1904. 
259  pp.      $2. 00. 

Long,  The  Dairy  Farm.      London,  1889.      115  pp. 

Matthews,    Fconomics    in    Dairy    Fam:ing.     London,    1903. 
68  pp.     $2.25. 

Oliver,   Milk,  Cheese,  and  Butter.     London,   1894.     362  pp. 

Barthel,  Milk  and  Dairy  Products.     London,  1910.     260  pp. 

Freudenreich,  Dairy  Tiacteriology.     London,  1805.     115  pp. 

Swithinbank  and   Newman,   Bacteriology  of  Milk.     London, 
1904.     O05  pp.     $8.00. 


462  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

Other  European. 

Martiny,  Die  Milch,  I-II.     Danzig,  1871.     438  and  366  pp. 

Martiny,  Kirne  unci  Girbe.     Berlin,  1895.     404  pp.,  4to. 

Martiny,  Milchwirtschaftl.  Taschenbuch.  Published  annually, 
Leipzig. 

Fleischmann,  Das  Molkereiwesen,  Braunschweig,  1876. 
1074  pp. 

Fleischmann,  Lehrbuch  d.  ]\Iilchwirtschaft.  Fourth  edition. 
Leipzig,  190S.     536  pp. 

Grimmer,  Chemie  und  Physiologie  dcr  Milch.  Berlin,  1910. 
364  pp. 

Sommerfeld,  Handbuch  dcr  JMilchkunde.  Wiesbaden,  1909. 
999  PP- 

Stohmann,  Die  Milch-  und  jMolkerciproducte.  Braunschwei*', 
1898.     1031  pp. 

Kirchncr,  IlamUouch  d.  Milchwirlschaft.  Fiflh  edition. 
Berhn,  1907.     700  pj). 

Anderegg,  Geschichte  der  Milchwirtschaft.  Zurich,  1894. 
207  pp. 

V.  Klenze,  Handb.  d.  Kiiserei-Technik.     Bremen,  1884.  643  pp. 

Fugling,  Praktische  Kaserei.     Bremen,  1892.     260  pp. 

Weigmann,  Die  Methoden  der  Milch-conservirung.  Bremen, 
1893.     72  pp. 

Duclaux,  Le  Lait.     Paris,  1887.     336  pp. 

Duclaux,  Principes  de  Laiterie.     Paris.     370  pp. 

Leze,  Les  Industries  de  Lait.     Paris,  1891.     647  pp. 

Pouriau,  La  Laiterie.     5th  ed.     Paris,  1895.     898  pp. 

Boggild,  Miilkcribrugct  i  Damnark.  Third  edition.  Copen- 
hagen, 1907.     627  pp. 

A    LIST    OF    SIXTY    AGRICULTURAL    AND     HORTICUL- 
TURAL  BOOKS. 

Bailey,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture.  N.  Y,,  1907- 
1909.     4  volumes. 

Hunt,  How  to  Choose  a  Farm.     N.  Y.,  1906.     412  pp. 

Bailey,  Principles  of  Agriculture.     N.  Y.,  1898.     300  pp. 

Fream,  Elements  of  Agriculture.  8th  ed.  Loidan,  191 1. 
692  pp. 

Warren,  Elements  of  Agriculture.     N.  Y.,  1905.     434  pp. 


AGRICULTURAL    AND    DAIRY    LITERATURE.       463 

Webb,  Advanced  Agriculture,     London,  1894.     672  pp. 

Goff-Mayne,  First  Principles  of  Agriculture.  N.  Y.,  1904. 
248  pp. 

Hall,  Feeding  of  Crops  and  Stock.     London,  191 1.     298  pp. 

Storer,  Agriculture  in  some  of  its  Relations  with  Chemistry. 
7th  ed.     N.  Y.,  1897.     3  vols. 

Voorhees,  First  Principles  of  Agriculture.    N.  Y.,  1896.    212  pp. 

Roberts,  The  Fertility  of  the  Land.     N.  Y.,  1897.    415  pp. 

Voorhees,  Fertilizers.     N.  Y.,  1899.     335  pp. 

Warington,  Chemistry  of  the  Farm.  21st  ed.  London,  1913. 
247  pp. 

Johnson,  How  Crops  Feed.     N.  Y.,     375  pp. 

Johnson,  How  Crops  Grow.     N.  Y.,  1890.     416  pp. 

Hunt,  Cereals  in  America.     N.  Y.,  1904,     421  pp. 

Plumb,  Indian  Corn  Culture.     Chicago,  1895.     250  pp. 

Woll,  A  Book  on  Silage.     Revised  ed.,  Chicago,  1900.    234  pp. 

Allen,  American  Cattle.     N.  Y.,  1881.     528  pp. 

Wallace,  Farm  Live  Stock  of  Great  Britain.  Edinburgh, 
1907.     758  pp. 

Craig,  Judging  Live  Stock.     4th  ed.     Des  Moines,  la.,  1902. 

193  PP- 

Plumb,  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals.     N.  Y.,  1906. 

563  PP- 

Marshall,  Breeding  Farm  Animals.     Chicago,  191 1.     2S7  pp. 

Day,  The  Horse,  How  to  Breed  and  Rear  Him.  2d  ed. 
London,  1890.     453  pp. 

Johnstone,  The  Horse  Book.     Chicago,  1908.     299  pp. 

Armsby,  Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding.     N.  Y.,  1887.     525  pp. 

Henry,  Feeds  and  Feeding.     IMadison,  Wis.,  1910.     613  pp. 

Jordan,  Feeding  Animals.     N.  Y.,  1901.     450  pp. 

Craig,  Sheep  Farming  in  North  America.  N.  Y.,  1913. 
302  pp. 

Day,    Productive   Swine    Husbandry.       Philadelphia,    1913. 

330  PP- 

Dawson,  The  Hog  Book.     Chicago,  191 1.     414  pp. 

Harris,  On  the  Pig.     N.  Y.,  1889.     318  pp. 

CoUingwood,  The  Business  Hen.     N.  Y.,  1904.     125  pp. 

Robinson,  Principles  and  Practices  of  Poultry  Culture.  Bos- 
ton, 191 2,     6n  pp. 


464  GENERAL    TOPICS. 

Cook,  Bee-keeper's  Guide.     Lansing,   j\Iich.,   1S84.     4th  ed, 

337  PP- 

Law,    Farmer's   Veterinary    Adviser.     Ithaca,    N.    Y.,    18S0. 

426  pp. 

Reynolds,  Veterinary  Studies.     328  pp.     St.  Anthony  Park, 
Minn.,  1903. 

Hilgard,  Soils.     N.  Y.,  1906.     593  pp. 

King,  Physics  of  Agriculture,     Madison,  Wis.,  1904.     604  pp. 

King,  The  Soil.     N.  Y.,  1903.     303  pp. 

Elliott,  Land  Drainage.     N.  Y.     232  pp. 

Ogden,  Rural  Hygiene.     New  York,  191 1.     434  pp. 
■\  Wilcox,  Irrigation  Farming.     N.  Y.,  1902,     494  pp. 

Bailey,  et  al.,    Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture,  4  vols. 
N.  Y.,  1902. 

Goff,   Princii)les   of   Plant   Culture.     2d   ed.     jMadison,   Wis., 
1898.     276  pp. 

Bailey,  The  Nursery  Book.     2d  ed.     N.  Y.,  1892.     304  pp. 

Fletcher,  How  to  Make  a  Fruit  Garden.     N.  Y.,  1905. 

Rawson,  Success  in  ^Market  Gardening.     N.  Y.,  1910.     271  pp. 

Watts,  Vegetable  Gardening.     New  York,  191 2. 

Card,  Bush  Fruits.     New  York,  1899.     549  pp. 

Fuller,  Grape  Culturist.     N.  Y.     218  pp. 

Henderson,  Practical  Floriculture.     N.  Y.,  1891.     325  pp. 

Weed,    Insects    and    Insecticides.     Hanover,    N.    II.,    1891. 
281  pp. 

Lodeman,  The  Spraying  of  Plants.     N.  Y.,  1908.     399  pp. 

Gilford,  Practical  Forestry.     N.  Y.,  1902.     284  pp. 

Graves,    Principles   of   Handling   Woodlands.     N.    Y.,    1911, 

325  PP- 

Halsted,  Barn  Plans  and  Outbuildings,     N.  Y.,  1903.     385  pp. 
Bailey,   The    Farm   and    Garden   Rule-Book,     N,   Y.,    191 1, 

587  pp. 
Adams,  The  ]Modern  Farmer.     San  Francisco,  1899,     662  pp, 
Roberts,   The   Farmers'    Business  Handbook.     N.   Y,,    1903. 

300  pp. 

Carver,  Rural  Economics.     N.  Y.,  1905.     327  pp, 

Warren,  Farm  Management.     N.  Y.,  1913.     590  pp. 

Green,  Law    for  the   American  Farmer.     N.  Y.,   191 1.     438 

pp. 


AGRICULTURAL    AND    DAIRY    LITERATURE.        -1G5 

Butterfield,  Chapters  in  Rural  Progress.  Chicago,  1908. 
251  pp. 

Carney,  Country  Life  and  the  Country  SchooL  Chicago,  191 2. 
405  pp. 

AMERICAN    DAIRY    PAPERS. 

American  Cheese-Maker.  Grand  Rapids,  ]\Iich.  Monthly. 
50  cents. 

Chicago  Dairy  Produce.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  $1.50. 

Creamery  Journal.     Waterloo,  la.     IVIonthly,  $1.00. 

Dairy  Record,  St.  Paul,  Minn.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Elgin  Dairy  Report.     Elgin,  111.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Guernsey  Breeder's  Journal.  Peterboro,  N.  H.  Monthly. 
$2.00. 

The  Jersey  Bulletin  and  Dairy  World.  Indianapolis,  Tnd. 
Weekly,  $1.00. 

Hoard's  Dairyman.     Fort  Atkinson,  Wis.     Weekly,  $i.oo. 

Holstein-Friesian  Register.  Brattlcboro,  Xl.  Sjmi-monthly, 
$1.50. 

Holstein-Friesian  World,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Semi-monthly,  50 
cents. 

Kimball's  Dairy  Farmer.  Waterloo,  la.  Semi-inonthly,  50 
cents. 

The  Michigan  Dairy  Farmer,  Detroit,  Mich.  Semi-monthly, 
$1.00. 

The  Milk  Dealer.     Milwaukee,  Wis.     Monthly,  $r. 00. 

The  Milk  Reporter.     Syracuse,  N.  Y.     Monthly,  $1.00. 

New  York  Produce  Review  and  American  Creamery.  New 
York  City.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Practical  Dairyman.     New  York  City.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Pacific  Dairy  Review.     San  Francisco,  Cal.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Canadian  Dairyman.     Toronto.     Monthly,  $1.00. 

MAIN    FOREIGN    DAIRY    PAPERS. 

The  Dairy.     144  Fleet  Street,  London,  England.     Monthly,  3s. 

The  Dairyman.  17  New  Castle  Street,  Farringdon  St.,  Lon- 
don, England. 

The  Dairy  World  and  British  Dairy  Farmer,  310  Strand, 
London,  England.     Monthly,  3s. 


466  GENERAL    TOPICS. 

Nordisk  Mejeri-Tidning.     Stockholm,  Sweden.     Weekly,  5  kr. 

Malkeritidende.     Odense,  Denmark.     Weekly. 

Milchwirtschaftliches  Zentralblatt.  Leipzig,  Germany. 
Monthly. 

Deutsche  Molkerei-Zeitung.  Berlin,  Germany.  Weekly,  9.20 
mk. 

Molkerei-Zeitung.     Hildesheim,  Germany.     Weekly,  6  mk. 

Oesterreich.  Molkerei-Zeitung.  Vienna,  Austria.  Serai- 
monthly,  6  mk. 

L'Industrie  Laitiere.  33  Rue  J.  J.  Rousseau,  Paris,  France. 
Weekly,  20  fr. 

La  Laiterie.     18  Rue  dcs  Martyrs,  Paris.     Bi-weekly,  13  fr. 

Schwcizerische  Molkcrei  Zeitung.     Zurich.     Weekly,  6.60  fr. 

Die  IMilch  Industrie.     Berne,  Switzerland. 

Revue  Generale  du  Lait.     Brussels.     Semi-monthly,  16  fr. 

New  Zealand  Dairyman,  Wellington,  N.  Z.     JMonthly,  6s.  6d. 

MAIN    AMERICAN    A<;iJIC  I'LTIRAL    AND    HORTICUL- 
TLRAL    PAPERS. 

American  Agriculturist.     New  York  City.     Wcekl}',  Si.oo. 

American  Bee  Journal.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  $r.oo. 

American  Cultivator.     Boston,  Mass.     Weekly,  $2.50. 

American  Fertilizer.     Philadelphia,  Pa.     Monthly,  $2.00. 

American  Gardening.     New  York  City.     Semi-monthly,  $1.00. 

American  Hay,  Flour,  and  Feed  Journal.  N.  Y.  Monthly, 
$1.00. 

American  Poultry  Journal.     Chicago,  111.     Monthly,  $1.00. 

American  Poultry  World.     Buffalo,  N.  Y.     Monthly,  50  cents. 

American  Sheep  Breeder  and  Wool  Grower.  Chicago,  111. 
Monthly,  $1.00. 

American  Sugar  Industry  and  Beet-sugar  Gazette.  Chicago, 
Semi-monthly,  $2.50. 

American  Swine  Herd.     Chicago,  111.     Monthly,  50  cents. 

American  Thresherman.     Madison,  Wis.     Monthly,  $1.00. 

American  Veterinary  Review.  New  York  City.  Monthly, 
$3.00. 

Acker-  und  Gartenbau  Zeitung.  Milwaukee,  Wis.  Weekly, 
$1.00. 

Better  Fruit.     Hood  River,  Ore.     Monthly,  $1.00. 


AGRICULTURAL    AND    DAIRY    LITER\TURE.       407 

Breeders'  Gazette.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  $i.oo. 

California  Cultivator  and  Poultry  Keeper.  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
Monthly,  s^r.oo. 

Canadian  Horticulturist.     Peterboro,  Ont.     Monthly,  $i.od. 

Chicago  Live  Stock  World.     Chicago,  111.     Daily,  $3.00. 

Colman's  Rural  World.     St.  Louis,  Mo.  .  Weekly,  $i.oo. 

Connecticut  Farmer.     Hartford,  Conn.     Weekly,  Si. 50. 

The  Country  Gentleman.     Philadelphia,  Pa.     Weekly,  $1.50. 

Country  Life  in  America.     N.  Y.     Monthly,  $4.00. 

The  Dakota  Farmer.     Aberdeen,  S.  D.     Semi-mj  iihly,  Si.oo. 

Drover's  Journal.     Chicago,  III.     Weekly,  $1.50. 

Farm  and  Fireside.     Springfield,  O.     Semi-monthly,  50  cents. 

Farm  and  Home.  Chicago,  and  Springfield,  Mass.  Semi- 
monthly, 50  cents. 

The  Farm  Poultry.     Boston,  Mass.     Monthly,  50  cents. 

The  Farmer.     St.  Paul,  Minn.     Semi-monthly,  50  cents. 

Farm  Implement  News.     Chicago.     Weekly,  %2.oo. 

The  Farmers'  Advocate.     London,  Ont.     Weekly,  $1.50. 

Farmers'  Guide.     Huntington,  Ind.     Weekly,  75  cents. 

The  Farmer's  Magazine.     Montreal.     Month'y,  $2.00. 

The  Farmers'  Tribune.     Sioux  City,  la.     Weekly,  $i.oo. 

Farmers'  Review.     Chicago,  III.     Weekl}-,  $1.25. 

Farm,  Field,  and  Fireside.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  Si.od. 

Farm  News.     Springfield,  Ohio.     Monthly,  50  ce  t. 

Farm,  Stock,  and  Home.  Minneapolis,  Minn.  Sem'.-monthly, 
50  cents. 

Farming.     N.  Y.     Monthly,  $r.oo. 

Farming  World.     Toronto,  Canada.     Weekly,  Si.oo. 

The  Farm  Journal.     Philadelphia,  Pa.     Monthly,  50  ceats. 

The  Field  Illustrated.     N.  Y.     Weekly,  $3.00. 

Florida  Agriculturist.     I)e  Land,  Fla.     Weekly,  $2.00. 

Flour  and  Feed.     jMilwaukee,  Wis.     Monthly,  $1.00. 

Garden  ALagazine.     N.  Y.     Monthly,  $1.00. 

Gardening.     Chicago,  III.     Semi-monthly,  $2.00. 

Horse  Review.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  $2.00. 

Indiana  Farmer.     Indianapolis,  Ind.     Weekly,  Sr.oo. 

The  Homestead.     Des  Moines,  la.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Irrigation  Age.     Chicago,  III.     Monthly,  $2.00. 

Journal  of  Agriculture.     St.  Louis,  Mo.     Weekly,  $1.00. 


468  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

Journal  of  Agriculture  and  Horticulture.     Montreal,  Canada. 
Monthly,  $i.oo. 

Kansas  Farmer.     Topeka,  Kan.     Weekly,  $i.oo. 

Kentucky  Stock  Farm.     Lexington,  Ky.     Weekly,  $2.00. 

Live  Stock  and  Dairy  Journal.     Sacramento,  Cal.     Monthly, 
75  cents. 

Live  Stock  Journal.     Chicago,  III.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Live  Stock  Report.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly. 

Louisiana  Planter  and  Sugar  Manufacturer.     New  Orleans, 
La.    Weekly,  S3 .00. 

Market    Growers'    Journal.    Louisville,    Ky.     Semi-monthly. 
$1.00. 

Massachusetts  Ploughman,  Boston.     Weekly,  $2.00. 

Michigan  Farmer.     Detroit,  ]\Iich.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Mirror  and  Farmer.     Manchester,  N.  H.     Weekly,  Si. 00. 

Montana    Stockman    and    Farmer.     Helena,    Mont.     Semi- 
monthly, $2.00. 

National  Grange  Monthly.     Westfield,  Mass.     50  cents. 

National  Stockman  and  Farmer.     Pittsburgh,   Pa.     Weekly, 
S1.50. 

Nebraska  Farmer.    Lincoln,  Neb.     Weekly,  $1.25. 

New  England  Farmer.     Boston,  Mass.     Weekly,  $2.00. 

New  England  Homestead.     Springfield,  Mass.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

The  Nor'-west  Farmer.     Winnipeg,  Manitoba.     Weekly,  $r  .50. 

Northwestern      Agriculturist.     Minneapolis,       ^linn.     Semi- 
monthly, 50  cents. 

Ohio  Farmer.     Cleveland,  Ohio.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Ohio  Poultry  Journal.     Dayton,  Ohio.     Monthly,  Si. 00. 

Orange  Judd  Farmer.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  Si. 00. 

Orchard  and  Farm.     San  Francisco,  Cal.     ISIonthly,  Si.oo. 

Pacific  Rural  Press.     San  Francisco,  Cal.     Weekly,  $3.00. 

Poultry  Husbandry.     Waterville,  N.  Y.     Monthly,  50  cents. 

Practical  Farmer.     Philadelphia.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Prairie  Farmer.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Ranch.     Seattle,  Wash.     Semi-monthly,  Si-oo. 

Rural  CaHfornian.     Los  Angeles,  Cal.     Monthly,  $1.50. 

Rural  New  Yorker.     New  York  City.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

The  Shepherds'  Journal.     Chicago,  111.     Monthy,  50  cents. 

Southern  Cultivator.     Atlanta,  Ga.     Monthly,  Si. 00. 


AGRICULTURE    AND    DAIRY   LITERATURE.  409 

Southern  Planter.     Richmond,  Va.     Monthly,  $i.oo. 
Successful  Poultry  Journal.     Chicago,  III.     Monthly,  50  cents. 
Sugar-beet.     Philadelphia.     Quarterly,  $2.00. 
Swine-Breeders'  Journal.     Indianapolis,  Ind.     Semi-monthly 
Ji.oo. 
Twentieth  Century  Farmer.     Omaha,  Neb.     Weekly,  $1.00. 
Texas  Stockman.     San  Antonio,  Tex.     Weekly,  $1.00. 
Turf,  Field,  and  Farm.     New  York  City.     Weekly,  $5.00. 
Wallace's  Farmer.     Des  Moines,  la.     Weekly,  $1.00. 
Western  Swine-breeder.     Lincoln,  Neb.     Monthly,  50  cents. 
Wisconsin  Agriculturist.     Racine,  Wis.     Weekly,  75  cents. 
Wool  Markets  and  Sheep.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  $1.00. 


INDEX. 


Aberdeen  Angus  cattle,  24 

Accidents,  what  to  do  in  case  of,  377 

Acidity  of  milk  or  cream,  determination  of,  by  alkaline  tablet  test,  304 

Manns'  test,  306 
Acre-foot  of  water,  177 
Adulteration  of  milk,  267 
Advanced  register  of^American  cattle  clubs,  requirements  for  admission, 

241 
Age  of  farm  animals,  determination  of,  36 
Agricultxiral  and  dairy  literature,  460 

horticultural  books,  list  of,  462 

papers,  main  American,  466 
Agricultural  associations,  constitution  of,  359 

books,  a  list  of,  462 

clubs,  constitutions  and  by-laws  of,  359 

crops,  rank  of  states  in  production  of,  448 

educational  institutions  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  454 

engineering,  161 

experiment  stations  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  458 

imports  and  exports,  1 904-1 905,  439 

population,  number,  and  classification,  417 

products,  average  farm  price  of,  1890-1910,  426 
rank  of  states  in  value  of,  448 

schools  and  colleges  in  the  United  States,  454 

wages  in  the  United  States,  424 
Agriculture,  officials  in  charge  of,  in  the  U.  S.,  453 
Alkaline  tablet  test  of  acidity  in  milk  or  cream,  304 
American  tnjtter,  the,  21 

agricultural  colleges,  454 

experiment  stations,  458 

dairy  schools,  457 

schools  of  forestry,  457 

soils,  chemical  composition,  146 

veterinary  colleges,  456 
Apples,  seasons  of  varieties,  in  various  storages,  94 
Arbor  Day,  dates  of,  in  different  states  and  territories,  139 
Ash  of  cows'  milk  and  colostrum,  composition  of,  251 
Atavism,  52 
Ayrshire  cattlj,  222 

471 


472  INDEX. 


Babcock  milk  test,  the,  252 

application  of,  254 

points  to  be  watched,  253 
Baltimore  Canned  Goods  Exchange,  standards  of,  102 
Barley,  commercial  grades  of,  405 
Barnyard  mantire,  152,  153 

composition,  155 
Beef  cattle,  24 

proportion  of,  to  live  weight  of  cattle,  206 
Bees,  honey,  and  wax  produced  in  the  United  States,  438 
Beet-sugar  production  in  the  United  States,  1901-1903,  436 
Berkshire  swine,  27 

Board  of  Health  (N.  Y.)  lactometer,  254,  255 
Boiler,  care  of,  286 

power,  289 
Bordeaux  mixture,  121 

Boyd,  John,  Boyd's  process  of  cream-ripening,  301 
Breed  tests  of  cows,  Columbian,  1893,  238 

St.  Louis,  1904,  239 
Breeds  of  live  stock,  characteristics  of,  21 

registered  live  stock  in  U.  S.,  428 
dairy  cattle,  429 
Breeders'    Associations,    co-operative,    Constitution ,  367a 
Brown-Swiss    Cattle,    234 
Butter,  295 

American  premium,  analyses  of,  308 

by  deep,  cold  setting  and  Cooley  system,  303 
shallow-pan  creaming,  303 

cheese  and  condensed-milk  factories  in  the  United  States,  43/ 

commercial  grades  of,  309 

composition  of,  307 

conversion  factor  for  calculating  yield  of,  311 

domestic  exports  of,  1870-1905,  446 

English  scale  of  points  for  judging,  317 

factories  in  the  United  States,  statistics  of,  434 

fat,  highest  record  for  24  hours,  239 
official  records,  240 
standard  of  purity,  government,  265 

foreign  samples  of,  composition  of,  308 

fresh,  composition  of,  308 

from  separator  cream,  304 

foreign,  analyses  of,  308 

formula  for  calculating  yield  of,  311 

loss  of,  through  inefficient  skimming,  285 

makers,  score  in  judging  proficiency  of,  317 

making,  295 

distribution  of  milk  ingredients  in,  316 
use  of  pure  cultures  in,  297 

milk,  composition  of,  273 

milk  required  for  making  i  lb.  of,  315,  316 

overrun,  the  sliding-scale,  314 


INDEX.  473 


Butter,  records,  official,  240 

salted,  composition  of,  308 

score  for  judging,  316 

sliding-scale  overrun,  314 

sour  cream,  composition  of,  307 

standard  of  purity,  government,  265 

standards  for,  262 

sweet  cream,  composition  of,  307 

unsalted,  composition  of,  308 

yield  from  cream  of  different  richness,  311 

milk  of  different  richness,  314,  346 
By-laws  and  rules  for  co-operative  cheese  factories,  354 

creamery  associations,  351 
Caldvell,  Prof.  W.  H.,  Guernsey  cattle,  214 
California  weir  table,  182 
Canada,  area  and  population,  411 

butter  and  cheese-making  in,  435 

crops,  production  of,  425 

dairy  schools,  459 

experiment  stations,  459 

exports  of  dairy  products,  446 

meteorological  data,  416 

Ministers  and  Commissioners  of  Agriculture,  453 

number  of  farm  animals,  1901,  427 

production  of  various  crops,  190 1,  425 

veterinary  colleges,  458 
Canned  Goods  Exchange,  Baltimore,  standards,  102 
Carcass,  a  steer's,  204 

of  farm  animals,  constituents  of,  209 
Cattle,  breeds.  24 

clubs,  American,  requirements  for  Admission  to  adv.  registers,  241 

determination  of  age  of,  28 

diseases  of,  57 

live  weight,  estimation  of,  35 

market  classes,  30 

proportion  of  beef  to  live  weight    206 
the  various  parts  of,  208 

pure  bred,  used  for  dairying,  in  the  United  States,  429 
Cattle  foods,  classification,  11 

comparative  value,  19 
Centrifugal  skim-milk,  per  cent  fat  in,  280 
Cereals,  prevention  of  smut  in,  129 

prices  per  bushel  and  per  ton,  20 
Cheddar   cheese,   formulas   for  finding  yield  of,   331 

commercial    grades    of,    3360 

losses  in  curing,  333 

manufacture  of,  319 
Cheese,  butter,  and  condensed-milk  factories  in  the  United  States  in 

T900,  434 
Cheese,  comnosition,  320,  330 

ouring-r  )oms,  dptermim'i  --i  ■^^f  'rimidity  in,  326 


474  INDEX. 


Cheese,  domestic  exports  of,  1870-1905,  446 

factories,  co-operative,  by-laws  and  rules  for,  354 
in  the  United  States,  statistics  of,  434 
management    338 

whey  to  be  allowed  patrons  of,  337 
loss  in  weight  during  curing,  333 
manufacture  of,   319 
market  of  the  United  States,  336a 
score  for  judging,  329 
standard  of  purity,  government,  265 
Chece  making,  distribution  of  ingredients,  330 

fertilizing  ingredients,  331 
use  of  pure  cultures,  297 
synopsis  of  manufacture  of  principal  varieties,  336 
varieties  and  analyses,  330 
yield  from  100  lbs.  of  milk,  332,  334 
Chester  White  pigs,  27 
Cheviot  sheep,  26 

Chinch-bugs,  fighting  the,  by  means  of  kerosene  emulsion,  130 
Cisterns,  capacity  of,  182,  183 
Clark,  W.  G.,  M.D.C.,  Common  diseases  of  farm  animals,  53 

Veterinary  remedies  and  doses,  63 
Cleveland  Bay  horses,  22 
Clover,  winter-killed,  replacing,  82 
Clovers,  notes  on  adaptability  and  uses,  iii 
Clydesdale  horses,  22 
Coins,  foreign,  value  of,  400 

Cold  storage,  temperatures  for  dairy  products  in,  318 
Colostrum,  composition  of,  251 

ash,  composition  of.  251 
Components  of  cows'  milk,  calculation  of,  250 

Composite  samples  of  milk,  directions  for  taking  and  preserving,  338 
Composition  and  weight  of  ordinary  crops  per  acre,  80 
of  ash  of  cows'  milk  and  colostrum,  251 
butter,  307,  308 
colostrum,  251 

commercial  fertilizing  materials,  154 
cows'  milk,  variations  in,  249 
cream,  273 
dairy  products,  273 
dairy  salt,  318 

different  parts  of  same  milkings,  249 
feeding-stuffs,  i,  3,  6 
live  animals,  208 
milk  of  different  breeds,  242 
morning  and  evening  milk,  249 
morning,  noon,  and  evening  milk,  249 
sweet-  and  sottr-cream  butter,  307 
various  kinds  of  milk,  248 
Concentrated  feeding-stuffs,  weight  of,  18 
Condensed  milk,  composition,  273 


INDEX.  475 

Condensed-milk,  butter,  and  cheese  factories  in  the  United  States,  434 
Constitution   and   by-laws   of   agricultural    clubs,  359 
breeders'    associations,    367(1 
dairy  test  associations,  3676 
road  leagues,  366 

village -improvement  societies,  364 
Contagious  diseases,  rules  for  treatment  in  case  of,  71 
Conversion  factor  for  calculating  yield  of  butter,  311 

of  U.  S.  weights  and  measures  to  metric,  and  vice  versa,  389,  391 

foreign  money  to  dollars  and  cents,  410 
table  for  calculating  fertilizing  ingredients,  160 

pounds  of  milk  into  quarts,  and  vice  versa,  269 
Cooling  milk  or  cream,  water  or  ice  required,  294 
Com,  cost  per  acre  of  raising,  426 

commercial  grades  of,  403 
Com  on  the  cob,  measurement  of,  in  cribs,  397 
Cost  of  irrigating  canals  and  ditches,  iSo 
raising  wheat  and  corn,  per  acre,  426 
Cotswold  sheep,  26 
Cotton,  average  cost  per  acre,  426 
Cows,  buying  and  selling  by  tests  of  their  milk,  244 
care  of,  245,  272,  350 
diseases  of,  57 
See  also  under  Dairy  Cows 
Craig,  Prof.  John  A.,  Characteristics  of  breeds  of  live  stock,  31 
Cream,  application  of  viscogen,  292 
calculation  of  per  cent  fat  in,  275 
composition  of,  273 
formula  for  diluting,  to  a  desired  fat  content,  279 

finding  fat  content  of,  278 
gatherers,  instructions  to,  356 
ice  required  for  cooling,  294 
of  different  fat  contents,  relative  value  of,  270 

yield  of  butter  from,  311 
preservation  of,  by  heat,  290 

quantity  of  water  or  ice  required  for  cooling,  294 
relative  value  of,  2690 
ripening,  Boyd's  process  of,  301 
separators,  capacity  of,  282 
economy  of,  281 
handling  and  care  of,  279 
list  of,  276 

power  reqtiired  for  skimming  1000  lbs.  milk,  aSi 
standard  of  purity,  government,  265 
standards  for,  262 
standardization  of,  286 
use  of  alkaline  taVjlet  test  with,  304 
yield  from  milk  of  different  richness,  274 
Creameries  and  cheese  factories,  directions  for  making  dividends  in,  345 

suggestions  to  patrons  of,  349 
Creamery  associations,  co-operative    by-laws  and  rules  for,  351 
management  of,  338 


47G  INDEX. 


Crops,  farm,  enemies  of,  121 

field,  important  data  as  to,  74,  77 

fertilizing  materials  in,  150,  151 

soiling,  81,  82,  84 

various  yields  per  acre,  91 

weight  and  average  composition  of,  per  acre,  80 
Culverts,  sizes  of  drain-pipe  required  for,  in  prop,  to  capacity  and  fall,  169 
Curd  test,  the  Wisconsin,  322 
Curing  of  cheese,  losses  in,  333 

rooms,  humidity  in,  326 
Cuts  of  meat,  diagrams  of,  204,  205 
Dairy  breeds,  composition  of  milk  from,  242 
>         results  of  tests  of,  237-241 

cattle,   origin  and  characteristics  of  breeds,  211 
purebred,  in  the  United  States,  429 

cows,   211 

advanced  register  of,  requirements  for  admission,  241 

dry  matter,  digestible  matter    and    digestible  protein  to   be 

furnished  in  rations,  196 
methods  of  judging  the  value  of,  243,  244 
pure-bred,  average  per  cent  of  fat  and  production,  242 
rations  for,  12,  14,  16 
size  of  silo  for  diiTerent  number  of,  86 
soiling  crops  for   84 

j'ield  of  milk  and  fat  from,  236.  239,  242 
farms,  regulations  for  the  government  of,  71 
papers,  American,  464 
main  foreign    465 
products,  American  analyses  of,  248 
composition  of    273 
exports  of,  from  Canada    1 868-1 904,  446 

the  United  States,  1 870-1 905,  446    ' 
fertilizing  ingredients  in,  251 
legal  standards  for,  262 
standards  of  purity,  government,  264 
temperatures  for  cold  storage  of,  318 
rules,  fifty,  244 
salt,  analyses,  318 

schools  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  457 
statistics  for  the  United  States,  1900,  432 
test  associations,    constitution,    367& 
Dairies  and  dairy  farms,  regulations  for  the  government  of,  71 
Dairying,  211 

more  important  works  on,  460 

pure-bred  cattle,  used  for,  in  the  U.  S.,  number  and  value,  439 
Dates  of  killing  frost,  413 

Days  between  dates  within  two  years,  number  of,  384 
Decker,  Prof.  John  W.,  How  American  cheese  is  made,  319 
Dentition  of  farm  animals,  36 
Detection  of  bad  milk,  322 
Devon  cattle,  230 


INDEX.  477 

Dewey,  L.  H.,  Table  of  noxious  weeds,  ii6 
Dew-point,  table  of,  327 
Dietaries,  196 

daily,  calculation  of,  196 
Dietary  standards,  196 

studies,  American,  summary,  203 
Digestion  coefficients,  2 

Dimensions,  interior,  of  farm  buildings,  191 
Directory  of  official  agricultural  institutions,  452 
Diseases  of  farm  animals,  53 
Disinfectants,  list  of,  70 
Disinfection  of  stables,  rules  for,  71 
Distance  table  for  planting  vegetables,  88 

tree-planting,  90,  138 
Ditches,  open,  number  of  acres  drained  by,  166 

Dividends,  directions  for  making,  in  creameries  and  cheese  factories,  345 
Dorset  sheep,  26 

Doses,  veterinary,  graduation  of,  63 
Drainage  systems,  points  to  note  in  planning,  169 

Draining  of  area  of  land  by  tiles,  removing  i  in.  depth  of  water  in  24 
hours,  165,  170 
area  of  land  by  open  ditches,  166 
land,  reasons  for,  161 
Drains,  of  various  dimensions,  earth  removed  for    171 

advice  to  landowners  about  to  construct,  168 
Duroc-Jersey  swine,  27 
Durum  wheat,  commercial  grades,  403 
Dutch  belted  cattle,  232 
Duty  of  water,  176 
Economy,  pecuniary,  of  food,  200 
Egg  products  in  the  U.  S.,  1879-99,  437 
Eggs,  loss  in  weight,  during  incubation,  46 
Engine  management,  289 
Engineering,  agricultural,  161 
English  milking  trials,  results  of,  241 
Essex  swine,  27 
Exhaiistion  of  fertilizers,  156 

Exhibition  purposes,  preservation  of  soft  fruits  for,  100 
Experiment  stations,  agricultural,  in  the  U.  S.  and  Canada,  458 
Exports,  agricultural,  in  the  U.  S.,  1904-1905,  439 

domestic,  of  butter  and  cheese,  446 
Fair  tests  of  dairy  cows,  239,  243 
Farm,  transportation  on  the,  189 
Farm  animals,  body  temperature  of,  38 

characteristics  of  breeds  of,  21 

commjn  diseases  of,  53 

constituents  of  carcass,  200 

determination  of  age  of,  36 

estimated  number  on  farms  and  ranches,  1905,  430 

feeding-standards  for    ip 


478  INDEX. 


Farm  animals,  food  requirements  of,  i8 

gestation  period,  average,  39 

heat  in,  duration  and  trequency,  38 

in  Canada  in  1901,  427 

in  the  United  States  in  1870-1900,  427 

hve,  composition  of,  208 

market  classes  of,  28 
Farm  buildings,  interior  dimensions  of,  191 
crops,  enemies  of,  121 
products,  fertilizing  constituents  of,  147 

cost  of  hauling,  188 

yield  of,  per  acre,  81 
Farmyard  manure,  amount  required  to  replace  ingredients  abstracted 
by  various  crops,  152 
composition,  amount,  and  value,  153,  155 
Farmers,  forestry  for,  131 

Farmers'  institutes,  officials  in  charge  of,  459 
Farming  population  of  the  United  States,  417 

approximate  losses  of  fertilizing  materials  in  different  systems,  145 
Farms  in  the  United  States,  statistics  concerning,  419 
Farrington,  Prof.  E.  H.,  The  alkaline  tablet  test  for  acidity  in  milk  or 

cream,  304 
Fat  content  of  milk  from  pure-bred  cows,  242 
Fat,  rel:ition  of,  to  casein  and  other  solids  of  milk,  250 
Fattening  animals,  comparative  results  obtained  with,  207 
Feeding  and  general  care  of  poultry,  41 
standards  for  farm  animals,  12 
stuffs,  chart  showing  manurial  value  of,  147 

composition  of,  i,  3,  6 

comparative  value  of,  19 

concentrated,  classification,  11 
weights  of,  18 

fertilizing  constituents,  147,  148 

manurial  value,  147 

ready  reference  table  of  composition,  6 

valuation  of,  20 
Feed  rations,  calculation  of  components  of,  14 
Feed  unit  system,  19a 
Fermentation  tests,  322,  324 
Fernow,  Prof.  B.  E.,  Forestry  for  farmers,  131 
Fertilizer  industry  of  the  United  States,  447 

laws,  states  having,  158 
Fertilizing  constituents  of  feeding-stuffs  and  farm  products,  147,  148 
materials,  commercial,  composition,  154 

conversion  table  for  calculation,  160 

equivalent  quantities  of,  157 

in  dairy  products,  251;  in  different  crops,  151 

in  raw  materials  and  chemicals,  trade  value  of,  159 

losses  of,  in  different  systems  of  farming,  14s 

voided  by  animals,  153 


INDEX.  479 

Fertilizing  materials  withdrawn  by  various  crops,  150,  151 
Fertilizers,  145 

commercial,  composition,  154 
exhaustion  of,  156 
imports  and  exports,  447 
industry  of  the  U.  S.,  447 
valuation  of,  158 
Field  crops,  74 

important  data  as  to,  77 
Fish    N.  S.,  Brown -Swiss  cattle,  234 

Flag  signals  adopted  by  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  explanation  of,  368 
Flaxseed    commercial  grades  of,  406 
Food  economy ;  195 
fuel  value,  194 
Foods,  human,  193 

Food  materials,  human,  composition  of,  197,  198 
nutrients  furnished  for  25  cents  in,  201 
pecuniary  economy  of,  200 
Forcing  calendar,  a  vegetable,  93 
Foreign  coins,  value  of,  409 
Forestry,  131 

for  farmers,  131 
schools  of,  45  7 
Forest  fire  laws  in  the  United  States,  140 
Formaldehyd  treatment  for  the  prevention  of  smut  of  cereal  grains  and 

of  potato  scab,  127,  129 
Formulas  for  calculation  of  total  solids  in  milk,  258 

yield  of  butter,  311 
converting  degrees  Centigrade  or  Reaumur  to  Fahrenheit, 

and  vice  versa,  395 
diluting  cream  to  a  desired  fat  content,  279 
finding  adulteration  of  milk,  267 
fat  content  of  cream,  278 
quantity  of  water  or  ice  required  for  cooling  milk 

or  cream,  294 
yield  of  Cheddar  cheese,  331 
Frederiksen,  J,  D.,  Handling  and  care  of  cream  separators,  279 
French  coach  horses,  22 

Frost,  killing,  dates  of  average  and  actual,  413 
Fruit   and    vegetable    garden,   a  combined,   92 
Fruit    packages,    kinds    of,    94 
Fruit  trees,  distances  apart,  90 
longevity,  00 

time  required  to  bear  fruit,  90 
Fruits,  soft,  preservation  of,  for  exhibition  purposes,  100 
calculated  value  of,  compared  with  hay,  grains,  etc.,  19 
temperatures  for  preserving,  100 
Fuel  value  of  food  materials,  194 

of  woods,  136 
Fungous  diseases  of  plants    treatments  for    121 
Galloway  cattle,  24 


480  INDEX. 

Gardener's  planting  table.  88 
Gardner,  M.  H.,  Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  218 
Gerber  fermentation  test,  the,  324 
Germination  standards  of  seeds,  109 
of  vegetable  seeds,  time  of,  90 
Gestation  calendar,  39 

period  in  farm  animals,  39 
Goff,  Prof.  E.  S.,  Treatments  for  insect  and  fvmgous  diseases,  i9S 
Government  land  measures,  396 

standards  of  purity  for  milk  and  its  products,  264 
Grades  of  butter,  commercial,  309 
grain,  commercial,  401 

barley,  405 

com,  403 

durum  wheat,  403 

flaxseed,  406 

oats,  404 

rye,  405 

wheat,  401 
hay  and  straw,  406a 
Grades  per  100  ft.,  and  their  square  roots,  164 
Grain,  commercial  grades  of,  401 
Grains,  prices  of,  per  bushel  and  per  ton,  20 
Grass  seeds,  amounts  to  sow  per  acre,  109 

number,  weight,  and  cost  of,  109 
Grasses,  notes  on  adaptability  and  uses  of,  m 
Guernsey  cattle,  214 
Gurler,  H.  B.,  Butter-making,  295 
Hackney  horses,  22 
Hampshire  sheep,  25 
Hand  separators,  list  of,  276 
flauling  farm  products,  cost  of,  188 
Hawks  and  owls,  beneficial  and  harmful,  370 
Hay  in  mows  or  stacks,  reckoning  amount  and  value  of,  397 
Hay,  commercial  grades  of,  406a 

seed  mixtures  for,  75 
Heat  in  farm  animals,  duration  and  frequency,  38 
Hemp  ropes,  strength  of,  399 
Herd  milk,  ranges  in  composition  of,  268 
Heredity,  48 
Hereford  cattle,  24 

Hicks,  Gilbert  H.,  Seed-testing  for  the  farmer,  104 
Highland  sheep,  27 

Hills,  number  of,  on  an  acre  of  land,  87 
Hog  cholera,  suppression  of,  67 
H  ilid'iys,  l?Til.  375 
Hoi -.tein-Friesian  cattle,  218 

Hon-V  ail  be^s  viK  i.i  t".i3  Unite  1  State:^,  production  of,  43S 
Horse,  determination  of  a<?e,  36 


IKDEX.  481 


J 


Horse,  labor  done  by,  189 
Horse-power,  290 

required  for  discharge  of  given  quantities  of  water,  176 
separating  1000  lbs.  of  milk,  381 
Horses,  dentition  of,  38 

diseases  of,  53 

heavy,  22 

light,  21 

market  classes  of,  28 
Horticulture,  88 
HoTticultural  books,  a  list  of,  462 

products,  best  temperatures  for  preserving,  100 
Hot-water  treatment  for  smut,  127,  128 
Human  foods,  193 

composition,  198 
Humidity  in  cheese-curing  rooms,  326 

relative,  in  curing-rooms,  table  showing,  327 
Hurricane  warnings,  369 
Ice  required  for  cooling  milk  or  cream,  294 
Ice-cream,  standard  of  purity,  government,  266 
Imports,  agricultural,  in  the  U.  S.,  1904-1905,  439  1 

of  sugar  into  the  United  States,  436 
Inches  reduced  to  decimals  of  a  foot,  390 
Incubation,  loss  in  weight  of  eggs  during,  46 
Industry  groups  in  the  United  States,  424 
Indian  com,  commercial  grades  of,  403 
Insects,  injurious,  treatments  for,  121 
Interest  tables,  382 
Irrigated  land  in  farms,  value  of,  178 
Irrigating  canals  and  ditches,  cost  per  mile,  180  ) 
Irrigation,  176 

efficiency  of  windmills  for.  173,  181 

pipes,  carrying  capacity,   179 
cost  of,  180 
Jersey  cattle,  211 
Kephir,  composition  of,  270 
Kerosene  emulsion ,  122,  130 

Kilograms  converted  into  pounds  avoirdupois,  390 
Koumiss,  composition,  270 

standard  of  purity,  government,  266 
Lactometer,  254 

scales,  comparison  of,  255 
Land,  acres  of  appropriated,  vacant,  and  reserved,  in  the  U.  S.,  417 

measures,  government,  396 
Legal  holidays,  375 
Legal  standards  for  dairy  products,  263 

weights  of  grain,  seeds,  etc.,  400 
Leicester  sheep.  26 
Lincoln  sheep,  26 
Live  animals,  composition  of,  210 


482  INDEX. 


Live  mineral  matters  in  loo  parts,  210 
Live  stock,  characteristics  of  breeds  of,  21 

registered,  breeds  and  number  of,  in  the  U.  S.,  428 
Live  weight  of  cattle,  estimation  of,  28 
London  purple  ,122 
Loss  of  butter  from  inefficient  skimming,  285 

cheese  in  curing,  333 
Losses  of    fertilizing  materials  in  different  systems  of  farming,   145 
Lumber  industry  of  the  U.  S.,  statistics,  437 
Main  pipe,  rule  for  obtaining  size  of,  163 
Manila  ropes,  strength  of,  390 
Manns'  test,  direction  for  use,  306 
Manure,  amount  and  quality  produced  by  stock,  152 

amount  required  to  replace  ingredients  abstracted  by  various  crops, 

Manures  aid  fertilizers,  144 

composition,  amount,  and  value  of,  from  different  farm  ani- 
mals, 152,   153 
valuation  of,  158 
Manurial  value  of  feeding-stuflfs,  147,  148 

Maple  sirup,  specific  gravity,  sugar  content,  and  boiling-point,  96 
production  of,  in  the  United  States,  1899,  437 
sugar  obtained  from,  97 

production  of,  in  the  United  States,  1905-1906,  435 
Market  classes  of  farm  animals,  28 
Marschall  rennet  test,  319 
Maturity  tabic  for  vegetable  seeds,  90 
Meat,  diagrams  of  cuts,  204,  205 
Merino  sheep,  25 

Mineral  matters  in  100  parts  of  live  animals,  210 
Milch  cows,  diseases  of,  57 
Milk,  adulteration,  267 
ash,  composition,  251 

average  composition,  with  variations,  249 
bad,  detection  of,  322 
calculations  of  components,  250 
total  solids,  258 
care  of,  246 
composition  of,  from  different  breeds,  242 

different  parts  of  the  same  milkings,  249 
various  kinds,  248 
cream,   butter- fat,   and  butter,   comparative   prices.    314 
fertilizing   ingredients   in,   251 
gatherers,  instnictions  to,  356 

ingredients,  distribution  of,  in  butter-making,  316 

cheese-making,  331 
measures,  prices  of,  2690 

modified,  amounts  of  cream  or  skim-milk  used  in  making,  270 
morning  and  evening,  composition  of.  249 
morning,  noon,  and  evening,  composition  of,  249 
of  different  fat  contents,  relative  value  of,  270 
payment  of,  at  creameries  and  cheese  factorips,  340 


INDEX.  4S3 

Milk,  power  required  for  skimming  looo  lbs.,  281 
preservation  ot,  by  heat,  290,  293 
price  of,  per  1000  lbs.,  343 
prices,  by  measures    272a 
products,  standards  of  purity  for,  266 
quantity  of  water  or  ice  required  for  cooling,  394 
records,  official,  240 

relation  of  fat  to  casein,  and  other  solids  of,  250 
relative  cheese  value  of,  334 

required   for  making  one   lb.   of  butter,   315,   316 
rules    for    handling,    272 
skimming  and  watering  of,  267,  268 
solids,  calculation  of,  250,  258,  260 
sjlids,  calculation  of  specific  gravity  of,  261 
specific  gravity  of,  temperature  correction  tables  for,  256 
standards,  262 

standards  of  purity,  government,  264 
standardization  of.  271 

table  for  converting  pounds  of,  into  quarts,  269 
quarts  of,  into  pounds,  269 
finding  average  per  cent  of  fat  in,  347 
testing,  a  chapter  on,  252 
use  of  alkaline  tablet  test  with,  304 
variation  in  composition,  268 
watering  of,  267 

yield  and  composition  of,  of  different  breeds,  243 
Milking  trials,  English,  results  of,  241 
rules  for,  245 
utensils,  care  of,  247 
Milkings,  composition  of  different  parts  of  same,  349 
Miner's  inch,  177 
Money,  conversion  table,  410 
foreign,  value  of,  409 
order  fees,  386 
Monrad  rennet  test,  the,  319 
Mutton,  diagrams  of  cuts,  205 

sheep,  25 
Nails,  cut,  taVjle  of,  192 
New   York   Board   of   Health   lactometer,   comparison   with   Quevenne 

lactometer,  255 
Nitrate  of  soda,  prices  of,  on  the  ammoniate  basiii,  160 
Nitrogen  voided  by  animals,  153 
Noer,  J.,  M.D.,  What  to  do  in  case  of  accidents,  377 
Noxious  weeds,  table  of    116 
Number  of  yjlants  for  an  acre  of  ground,  86,  87 

trees  on  an  acre,  135 
Nutrients,  193 

furnished  for  25  cents  in  food  materials,  201 
Nutritive  ratio,  2 
Oats,  commercial  grades  of,  404 
Oat-smut,  prevention  of,  127 


484  INDEX. 


Oflficial  milk-  and  butter-fat  records,  240 

Orchard-spraying  outfit,  a  cheap.  126 

Ounces  reduced  to  decimals  of  a  foot,  390 

Oxford  sheep,  26 

Overrun  of  butter,  309,  314 

Parcel  post,  386 

Pasteurization  of  milk  and  cream,  290 

Pastures,  permanent,  seed  mixtures  for,  75 

Patents,  how  issued,  371 

Patrons  of  creameries,  rules  for,  356 

Patrons  of  cheesa  factories  and  creameries,  suggestions  to,  34^. 

Payment  of  milk  at  creameries  and  cheese  factories,  340 

Percheron  horses,  23 

Perishable  goods,  temperatures  injuring,  98 

Pickrell,  J.  H.,  Shorthorns  as  dairy  cows,  224 

Pipes,  carrying  capacity  of,  179 

cost  of,  for  irrigation,  180 

straight,  flow  of  water  through,  179 
Plant   diseases,   treatments   for,    121 

food,    proportion    recommended   for   different   crops,    158 
Planting  table,  a  gardener's,  88 
Plants,  temperatures  injurious  to,  99 
Plants,  number  of,  for  an  acre  of  ground,  86,  87 
Plowing,  performance  of  team  in,  189 
Poisoning,  antidotes  in  cases  of,  380 
Poland  China  swine,  27 

Population,  agricultural,  number  and  classification,  417 
Pork,  diagram  of  cuts  of,  205 
Postage,  domestic,  385 

foreign,  385;  parcel  post,  386 
Potatoes,  relation  of  sp.  gr.,  dry  matter,  and  starch  content  of,  95 
Potatoes,  prevention  of  scab,  129 
Poultry  and  egg  products  in  the  United  States,  1 879-1 899,  437 

breeds  of,  47,  48 

feeding  and  care  of,  41 

period  of  incubation,  38 

standard  weights  of,  47 
Pounds  converted  into  kilograms,  390 
Power  required  for  discharge  of  water,  176 

to  raise  water  from  deep  wells,  180 

separators,  list  of,  276 
Precipitation,  normal,  in  Canada,  416 

the  United  States,  415 
Preservation  of  horticultural  products,  best  temperatures  for,  to* 
milk  and  cream  by  heat,  290 
soft  fruits  for  exhibition  purposes,  100 
Preservatives  for  soft  fruits  for  exhibition  purposes,  loa 
Prevention  of  oat -smut,  127 

smuts  of  cereal  grains  and  potatoes,  129 
Pumps,  capacities  of,  181 
Pure  cultures,  use  of,  in  butter-  and  cheese-making,  397 


INDEX.  485 

Purity  sta  idards  of  seeds,  io6 

Quevenne  lactometer,  255 

Rainfall,  172 

Rations  for  dairy  cows,  practical.  14,  16;  standard,  12 

dry   matter,    digestible     matter,    and   digestibk 
protein  in,  19^. 
farm  animals,  12 
Reciprocals  of  numbers,  392 
Record,  highest,  for  yield  of  fat,  239 
Records,  milk-  and  butter-fat,  official,  240 
Red-polled  cattle,  227 
Rennet  tests,  319 

Richards,  H.  B.,  Dutch  belted  cattle,  232 

Richter,  Prof.  A.  W.,  Steam  boiler  and  engine  management    286 
Road  leagues,  constitul^^ion  of,  366 
Road-making,  18.* 
Roads,  drainage,  183 

Roads,  different  l-*"-'s  ot.  force  required  to  draw  a  load  on    185    186 
good,  importanc  -^5 

gravel  for,  1 84 
repairs,  184 

stoiie  required  for  maintenance  of,  1 90 
Ropes,  strength  of,  399 

Russell,  Prof.  H.  L.,  Preservation  of  milk  and  cream  by  heat,  290 
Rye,  commercial  grades  of,  405 
Salt,  American  dairy,  analyses  of,  318 
Second-foot  of  water,  177 

3eed  mixtures  for  grass,  clover,  hay  and  permanent  pastures,  75.  76 
quantity  required  per  acre,  74>  7  7 
testing  for  the  farmer,  104 
vegetable,  quantity  required  per  acre,  90 
Seeds,  104 

germination  standards,  109 

grass,  number,  weight,  cost,  and  amount  to  sow  per  acre    ioq 
purity,  105 
purity  standards,  106 

vegetable,  time  of  germination  and  maturity  table    90 
\ntality.  113 
weights,  legal,  400 
seedsmen's,  114 
Separator  skim-milk,  per  cent  fat  in,  280 
Shaw,  Prof.  Thomas,  Heredity,  48 
Sheep,  breeds.  25 

determination  of  age  of,  36 
diseases  of,  61 
fine-woo  led,  25 
market  classes  of,  32 
mutton.  25 

proportions  ot  the  various  parts  of,  208 
Shire  horses,  33 


48G  ii^^DEX. 


Shorthorn  cattle,  24,  224 
Shropshire  sheep,  25 

Silos,  cylindrical,  horizontal  feeding  area  for  different  sized  herds,  P5 
capacity  of,  85 

relation  between  size  of,  and  number  of  cows  they  will  keep,  86 
Simp,  sorghum,  obtained  from  juice  of  different  densities,  97 
Sissnn,  L.  P.,  Devon  cattle,  230 
Skim-milk,  composition  of,  273 

per  cent  fat  in,  280 
Skimming  of  milk,  detection  of,  267 

inefficient,  loss  of  butter  caused  by,  285 
Slope,  rise  per  100  feet,  171 
Smith,  J.  McLain,  Red-polled  cattle,  227 
Smut  of  cereal  grains,  prevention  of,  129 

oats,  prevention  of,  127 
Sodium  nitrate,  prices  of,  on  the  ammoniate  basis,  160 
Soiling  crops  adapted  to  Northern  New  England  states,  81 
succession  of,  for  dairy  cows,  84 
time  of  planting  and  feeding,  82 
Soils,  American,  analyses  of,  146 
Solids  of  milk,  calculation  of,  258 
sp.  gr.  of,  261 
tables  for  obtaining,  from  specific  gravity  and  per  cent  of  fat,  26c 
Sorghum  sirup  obtained  from  juice  of  different  densities,  97 

produced  in  the  United  States,  1899,  437 
Southdown  sheep,  25 
Specific  gravity  of  buttermilk,  273 
cream,  273 
maple  sirup,  96 
milk,  249 
milk  solids,  261 
potatoes,  95 
skim-milk,  273 
various  substances,  407 
woods,  136 
temperature  correction  tables  for,  of  milk,  256 
Spraying  calendar,  123 

outfit  for  orchards,  126 
Standard  rations  for  farm  animals,  12,  14 

varieties  of  poultry,  47 
Standards  for  dairy  products,  262 
of  purity  of  seeds,  106 

for  milk  and  its  products,  government,  364 
Standardization  of  cream,  286 

milk,  272 
Starch  content,  dry  matter,  and  sp.  gr.  of  potatoes,  relation  of,  95 

equivalent.  2 
Statistical  tables,  411 

Steam  boiler  and  engine  management,  286 
Steers,  diagram  of  carcass,  204 


INDEX.  4P' 


Steers,  live  and  dressed  weights  of,  206 

proportions  of  the  various  parts  of,  206 
Sterilization  of  milk  and  cream,  290,  293 
Storm  and  hurricane  warnings,  369 
Straw,  commercial  grades  of,  406a 
Sub-humid  region,  178 
Suffolk  horses,  23 

sheep,  26 
Sugar  in  the  United  States,  production,  436 

factories  in  the  U.  S.,  statistics  of,  436 

imports,  1901-1905,  436 
Swine,  breeds,  27 

determination  of  age  by  their  teeth,  36 

diseases  of,  62 

live  weight  and  gains  made,  207 

market  classes  of,  321 

plague,  suppression  of,  67 

proportions  of  the  various  parts  of,  208 
Tainted  milk,  causes  of,  322 
Tamworth  swine,  27 
Tanks,  capacity  of,  182 

Temperature  correction  tables  for  specific  gravity  of  milk,  256 
Temperature  of  the  air,  normal  mean,  in  Canada,  416 

the  United  States.  413 
farm  animals,  normal,  38 
Temperatures  injuring  perishable  goods,  98 

for   preserving  horticultural   products,    100 

injurious  to  plants,  99 
Test     associations,    dairy,    constitution,    3676 
Testing  milk  and  other  dairy  products  by  Babcock's  method,  252 
Tests  of  dairy  breeds  at  American  experiment  stations,  237 
British  Dairy  Farmers'  Assoc,  241 
La.  Purchase  Exposition,  239 
World's  Columbian  Exposition,  238 
Thermometer  scales,  comparisons  of,  393 
Thoroughbred  horse,  the,  21 
Tile,  limit  of  size  to  grade  and  length,  172 
Tile  draining  land,  reasons  for,  161 

pipe  of  main  drain,  size  required,  163 
Tiles,  discharge  of,  on  different  grades,  164 

number  required  per  acre,  table  showing,  162,  163 

of    acres    drained   by,   of    different    diameters    and    per    cem 
grade,  164,  165 

size  required  for  drainage,  162,  163 
Tires,  wide,  effect  of,  190 
Tractive  force  required  for  carriages,  185 

of  horses  at  different  speed,  186 
effect  of  inclination  on,  187 
surface  on.  188 
Trade  values  of  fertilizing  ingredients,  159 
Transportation  on  the  farm,  189 


488  IN"DEX. 


Tree-planting,  distance  table,  138 
Trees,  number  on  an  acre,  135 
Trotter,  the  American,  21 
Tuberculin  tests,  directions  for  making,  69 
United  States,  agricultural  experiment  stations  in,  458 
«      imports  and  exports.  439 
population,  411,  418 
products,  prices  of,  1890- 1905,  426 
schools  and  colleges,  454 
wages,  1893-1895.  424 
area  and  population,  411 

areas  of  appropriated,  vacant,  and  reserved  land  in,  417 
bees,  honey,  and  wax  produced,  438 
beet-sugar  factories  in,  statistics  of,  436 

production,  1 903-1 906,  436 
breeds  and  number  of  registered  live  stock,  428 
butter,  exports,  1 870-1 905,  446 

factories,  statistics  of,  434 
cattle,  pure-bred,  used  for  dairying,  number  and  valus,  425 
cereal  products,  principal.  425 
cheese  factories,  statistics  of,  434 

exports,  1 870-1 905,  446 
comparison  of  leading  industries,  416 
condensed-milk  factories,  statistics  of,  434 
cost  per  acre  of  raising  wheat,  com,  and  cotton,  1893,  426 
crops,  principal,  statistics  of,  420,  425 
dairy  schools    457 

statistics  for  1900,  432 
Department  of  Agriculture,  organization,  453 
educational  institutions,  454 
farm  animals,  430 
farming  population,  417 
farmers'  institutes,  officials  in  charge,  459 
farms  in,  number  of.  and  their  value,  418 
farms,  statistics  concerning,  419 
fertilizer  industry.  447 

imports  and  exports,  1896,  447 
forestry  schools,  457 
industry  groups  in.  424 

live-stock  interests,  veterinary  and  sanitary  officers  in  charge  of,  456 
number  and  value  of  farm  animals,  427,  430 
of  farms  in,  and  their  value,  418 
of  pure-bred  cattle  used  for  dairying,  429 
of  registered  live  stock,  428 
officials  in  charge  of  agriculture,  453 
poultry  and  egg  product,  1880-1900,  437 
precipitation,  normal,  415 
production  and  value  of  principal  crops,  425 
production  of  honey  and  beeswax,  438 
rank  of  states  in  as  to  value  of  agricultural  products,  44.3 
soils,  analyses  of,  146 


IXDEX.  489 

United  States,  statistics  of  butter,  cheese,  and  condensed-milk  factories, 

434 
statistics  of  farms.  419 

principal  crops.  420,  425 
sugar  crop  in  the  United  States,  435 
factories,  beet,  statistics  of,  436 
production  of  beet-  and  cane-,  436 
temperature  of  the  air,  normal  mean,  412 
value  of  principal  farm  products,  425 
veterinary  colleges  in,  456 
wages,  agricultural,  1 893-1 895,  424 
wool  product,  435 
Valuation  of  feeding-stufifs,  20 

manures  and  fertilizers,  158 
Value  of  foreign  coins,  409 
Veal,  diagram  of  cuts,  205 
Vegetable  and  fruit  garden,  a  combined,  92 
Vegetable  forcing  calendar,  a,  93 
Vegetable  seed  required  per  acre,  90 

time  of  germination  and  maturity  table,  93 
Vegetables,  usual  distances  for  planting,  72 
V^eterinary  colleges,  American,  list  of,  456 
remedies  and  doses,  63 
science,  53 
Victoria  swine,  25 

Village-improvement  societies,  constitution  of,  364 
Viscogen,  292 
Vitality  of  seeds,  113 
"Wages,  agricultural,  in  the  United  States,  1 893-1 895,  424 

by  the  week  and  the  day,  table  of,  383 
Wagon  tires,  wide,  effect  of,  190 
Water,  acre-foot  of,  177 

carrying  capacity  of  pipes,  179 

duty  of,  176 

flow  through  straight  pipes,  179 

miiner's  inch,  177 

power  required  for  discharge  of,  176 

to  raise,  from  deep  wells,  180 
required  for  cooling  milk  or  cream,  quantity,  294 
right,  176 
second-foot,  177 
Watering  of  milk,  detection  of,  267 

and  skimming,  detection  of,  268 
Weather  Bureau,  the,  explanation  of  fiag  signals  adopted  by,  368 

services,  state,  list  of  headquarters  of,  370 
Weeds,  1 16 

noxious,  table  of,  116 
Weight  of  cattle,  estimation  of,  35 

eggs,  loss  in,  during  incubation,  46 
Weights  of  poultry,  standard,  47 


490  INDEX. 

"Weights  and  measures,  387 

conversion  table,  389,  391 
customary  system  of,  387 
metric  system  of,  388 
Weights,  legal,  of  grain,  seeds,  etc.,  114,  400 

seedsmen's  customary,  per  bu.  of  seeds,  114 
Weir  table,  the  California,  182 
Wheat,  cost  per  acre,  of  raising,  426 

commercial  grades  of,  401 
Wheeler,  Prof.  Wm.  P.,  Feeding  and  general  care  of  poultry,  4: 
Whey,  composition  of,  273 

standard  of  purity,  government,  266 

to  be  allowed  patrons,  337 
Whitewash,  recipe  for,  191 
Wind,  force  and  velocity  of,  173 
Windmills,  capacity,  173,  174.  i8r 

economy,  175 

square  feet  and  acres  irrigated  by,  173 
Winslow,  C.  M.,  Ayrshires,  222 
Winter-killed  clover,  replacing,  82 
Wire  ropes,  strength  of,  399 
Wisconsin  curd  test,  322 
Woods,  fuel  value  and  specific  gravity,  136 
Wool  product  of  the  United  States,  1905,  435 
World's  Columbian  Exposition,  results  of  breed  tests  at,  238 
World's  Fair,  St.  Louis,  results  of  breed  tests  at,  239 
Yield  of  butter,  formula  for  calculating,  311 

from  ICO  lbs.  cream  of  different  richness,  31? 

Cheddar  cheese,  formula  for  calculating,  331 

cheese  from  100  lbs.  of  milk,  332,  334 

fat,  highest  record,  239 

milk  and  fat  from  dairy  cows,  237 

of  dairy  breeds,  237-242 
Yields,  average,  per  acre  of  various  crops,  87,  91 
Yorkshire  swine,  27 


/ 


^Urk 


/ 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 
AGRICULTURE   LIBRARY 

40  GianninI  Hall  -  Tel.  No.  642-4493 

This  book  is  due  oo  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


MfiR  1 8  1977 

LD21 — 32to — 1,'75 
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General  Library 

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